Moment 4 Flashcards
macromolecules (PLNC)
large and complex. 4 groups - carbohydrates (poysaccharides), nucleic acids, proteins and lipids
building blocks in catabolic reactions (building cat FAMN)
what they break down into - monosaccharides (glucose), amino acids, fatty acids (glycerol) and nucleotides
During catabolic reactions, proteins are broken down into amino acids, lipids are broken down into fatty acids, and polysaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides
endothermic reaction
reactions that absorb heat
exothermic
reactions that release heat
oxidation (loss of an electron) of carbs that provides cells with…
most of their energy
glucose can be further broken down by…
cellular respiration or fermentation by glycosis.
structure of carbs - formula
CH2O, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
carbs are broken down into…
sugar or glucose
simple sugars (simply FGGD)
monosaccharides - glucose, fructose, galctose AND disaccharides
monosaccharides have one__for every____molecule
carbon for every water molecule
monomer (mono used for? - the point of everything)
is a small molecule. single compound that forms chemical bonds w/ other monomers to make a polymer. used to fuel production of energy in the form of atp
polymer (mono follows poly)
chemical compound of larger molecules formed by repeating monomers
ex. of polymers (pink polymers - PNC)
carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids
lipids - soluble in…
molecules that are soluble in nonpolar solvents, they are hydrophobic and nonpolar. they have C-H bonds. they are not true polymers bc they are not formed from one type of repeating monomer.
major role of lipids
energy storage and structural functions.
groups (types) of lipids
fats and oils, phospholipids, steroids and waxes - all insoluble in water
fats from food (trilgycerides)
gylcerol backbone and 3 fatty acid chains.
fatty acids (fatty necklace)
chains w/ reduced carbon at one end and carboxylic acid group at other.
This is what lipids are made of.
ex of fatty acid
soap
phospholipids (2 necklaces - think phospho)
2 fatty acid chains attached to a phosphate group. lipids that have a phosphate group rather than fatty acid
glycerides (glycy fat)
type of lipid, formed from fatty acid and gylcerol (type of alcohol)
ex of gylceride
fat and oil
proteins are just…(their basic make up)
polymers of long chains of amino acids. macromolecules formed from amino acids, they are polypeptides - many peptides linked together
how are peptide ions formed?
condensation. results from loss of water when 2 molecules are joined together
hydrolysis reaction (opposite of…)
Condensation requires energy - hydrolysis releases energy.
opposite of condensation reaction. water is added during condensation, and it releases energy as bonds break between monomers
peptide (think peptide bond)
a compound of 2 or more amino acids
amino acids are formed by….(partial amino)
formed by partial hydrolysis of protein, which forms amide bond.
in amino acids (carbon chain), there is…(amine 4)
carboxylic acid group and amine group, a central carbon atom and an attached R group (side chain)
enzymes
proteins w/ strong catalytic power, make chemical reactions happen faster and more often, but doesn’t start them. they dont get consumed in the reaction.
substrate
reactant, enzymes only react w/ substrate that is matched for it
nucleic acids are made of..(nuclear punch) which elements…
polymers composed of nucleotides that contain hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
hydrolysis (cat is basic)
reaction in which water is broken down into hydrogen cations and hyroxide anions
oligonucleotides
short DNA or RNA molecules, broken down into smaller sugar nitrogenous units called nucleosides
nucleosides formed by…. (cat-o)
a purine base end in “osine”, and pyrimidine base end in “idine”
macromolecular nucleic acid polymers
(RNA and DNA) formed from nucleotides, which are monomeric units joined by phosphodiester bonds
nitrogen fixation
used to make nucleotides for DNA and amino acids for protein
nucleic acids functions - (nuclear energy and storage)
store information and energy and are also important catalysts
RNA catalyzes the…
transfer of DNA genetic information into protein coded information
ATP is an___nucleotide
RNA
nucleotides (only 3 things) - USED to form…it’s all just sugar
used to form nucleic acid, made of 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and nitrogenous base
chromosomes (gene in car - history book)
consist of genes - single units of genetic information. consist of DNA that winds around histone proteins, allows gene regulation.
DNA
a nucleic acid located in the nucleus and mitochondria, synthesis of proteins. a macromolecule.
DNA base attached with…
hydrogen bonds, so easy to dismantle
4 types of nitrogenous base in DNA (what pairs w/ what - micro)
adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine
5 bases in DNA and RNA can be categorized as either..(just cat and pyramid)
pyrimidine or purine
pyrimidine base (CUT the pyramids)
includes cytosine, thymine and uracil
purine base (A Gato - purine)
adenine and guanine
ex of nucleosides (sides are AT)
adenosine and thymidine
bases are the most..(basic base) - learn this!
basic components. C joins w/ G, A joins w/ U - if it’s DNA/RNA conversion.
codons are made of….(3 codes)
like ACG. groups of 3 nucleotides, rings of a ladder. a gene can be thousands of codons long. form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA
a codon has the code for…
either a single amino acid or stop signal during protein synthesis.
there are start and stop
condons. genes end with a stop codon.
when DNA replication starts…
it unwinds
DNA replication is controlled by…
enzymes
helicase
enzymes that instigate the deforming of hydrogen bonds
origin of replication
where the splitting starts
RNA helps…(helper RNA)
convert stored info in the genes composed of DNA into the proteins.
types of RNA (TRM) transfer ribs
ribosomal, transfer, and messenger RNA
transcription (transcribe Banjeree)
process in which RNA polymerase copies DNA to RNA
translation (last step)
the process where ribosomes use tRNA to put together protein
transfer RNA - help with Banerjee
molecule that helps in the translation process
RNA and DNA differ…
RNA has ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA nitrogen base is AGCU. Thymine is only found in DNA
only one backbone
RNA
uses pentose
RNA
mendel’s law
law of segregation - no allele is favored over another one.
law of independent assortment - alleles are not inherited together, they are assorted.
law of segregation
there are 2 alleles and half of the total # of alleles is contributed by each parent. offspring have an equal chance of inheriting either allele, and no allele has advantage over another.
law of independent assortment (candy assortment - except…)
traits are passed on randomly and not influenced by other traits. exception is linked traits. alleles not inherited together.
punnett square
alleles combine from contributing genes to form various phenotypes (graph that shows the different combos)
dominant allele is expressed when…
2 different alleles are presented in a pair
gene (gene regulates dna’s structure)
part of DNA that identifies traits and is passed on. can have structural or regulatory functions.
genotype (all in one)
collection of all genes that make up an individual - combo of two alleles also called genotype
recessive genes
part of the genotype that may not be expressed
allele - also known as a….
variation of a gene, also known as a trait
occurs in pairs
genes
homozygous pair of alleles
dd, 2 alleles that are the same
heterozygous
Dd - 2 alleles that are different
monohybrid cross (monotrait)
cross involving only one trait, single trait 2 alleles. Parents are both homozygous. Tall plant crossed w/ short plant.
dihybrid cross (di - 2 - my eyes)
involving more than one trait, more combos are possible. starts w/ parental cross of 2 homozygous organisms. one is dominant for both traits, the other recessive for both traits.
1st monohybrid cross typically occurs between (mono - homo)
2 homozygous parents
co-dominance (co-cow)
cows can have red or white hair, or red and white hair
incomplete dominance (diluted strawberry milk)
both dominant and recessive genes are expressed. ie snapdragons can be red, white, or pink
polygenic inheritance (poly jeans)
traits that are influenced by more than one gene, plus environmental influences
multiple alleles
gene w/ more than 2 possible alleles
polymorphic gene
gene w/ 2 or more possible forms
atoms consist of
nucleus, protons and electrons
nucleus is___charged
positively, due to protons
molecules (adam)
atoms bonded together
neutral atoms (what cancels each other out?)
atoms that have an equal number of protons and electrons
atomic radius (distance between…think radius)
distance btwn nucleus and outermost electron
atomic number
number of protons in the nucleus
atomic mass
total number of protons and neutrons added together. electrons so small their weight isn’t added
isotopes
members of a family of an element that all have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
isotopes not observed to decay are..
stable, non-radioactive
radioactive isotopes
unstable nuclei and spontaneous reactions resulting in radiation.
electrons (leprach)
part of the lepton family of element particles.
stable electron arrangement (low is stable)
atom w/ all electrons in lowest available positions
valence shell
outer shell of atom
valence electrons
electrons in valence shell, these determine bonding behavior
shells (climbin)
K, L, M, N.
polar bond (polar opposites)
covalent bond with one end negative and one end positive, electrons shared unequally. ie hydrogen and oxygen
negative ion
when an atom gains an electron
positive ion
when an atom loses an electron
ionic bond
complete transfer of electrons. between ions w/ opposite charges like metal and non-metal, result is neutral. formed by the transfer of electrons between atoms
ionization (willow)
process by which neutral particles are ionized into charged particles
compound (most basic combo)
when 2 or more different types of atoms bond
molecules or crystalline solids (same crystal)
atoms of same element bond
chemical bonding (just electrons)
union btwn electron structures
ionic bonding (robin’s eye)
atom gains or loses electrons, turning it into an ion or charged atom.
covalent bonding - and the types
electrons shared equally between nonmetals and have non-polar bond. shared unequally = polar bond
hydrogen bonding
atom interacts w/ hydrogen atom in same area
dipole
one atom exerts slightly more force in a bond than another
polar covalent bond
electronegative difference between atoms is small, and one side is negatively charged, the other is positively charged. WATER IS POLAR.
electronegative difference is large (willow hair)
ionic bond
pure noncovalent bond (no charge if it’s pure)
no electronegativity
element (elementary)
most basic type of matter
smallest unit of an element
atom
smallest independent unit of a compound (m is independent)
molecule
diatomic elements (di - HON)
elements that exist in nature as pairs, ie hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen
low reactivity = (think shell almost full)
high number of electrons
principle energy levels (sister alice - shield out)
shield outer energy level from nuclear attraction, allowing valence electrons to react
further down periodic table
more reactive
intensive properties (intensity never changes)
do not depend on amount of matter or quantity of the sample. will not change if sample size is increased or decreased.
ex of intensive properties (CHB MD)
color, hardness, melting point, boiling point, density
extensive properties (extensive effects - one goes down, the other goes down)
do depend on amount of matter or quantity of sample. if sample size decreases, property decreases.
ex. of extensive properties (VEEW MME - 2 e’s)
volume, mass, weight, energy, entropy, number of moles, electrical charge
physical properties AND ex. of physical property (VE (rubber band) T MC)
property that can be observed or measured, ie color, elasticity, mass, volume, temp. ex - boiling water.
density (d =…)
measure of amount of mass per unit volume
formula for density
D=m/V
specific heat (per what?)
heat capacity per unit mass.
thermal equalibrium (can’t transfer if it’s equal)
two regions w/ the same temp, and no net heat transfer will occur
conduction (touch)
a form of heat transfer that requires contact
chemical property - ex. (burn H)
RUST - a chemical change that must be carried out in order to observe and measure a property, ie when hydrogen gas is burned it forms water.
important properties of h2o (basic fact about h2o)
highly polar, negatively charged end and positively charged sides
cohesive and adhesive
water. cohesive allows it to travel w/out using energy. cohesive also creates surface tension.
weaker than covalent and ionic bonds
hydrogen bonds
turgid
a plant cell that swells bc of water retention
matter
substances that have mass and occupy space
4 states of matter
solid, liquid, gas and plasma
solid (think bonds)
rigid w/ strong bonds
liquid - weak…
weak bonds
gas (bonds…)
does not form bonds
in order to transition from solid to liquid…(lazy heat)
additional heat must be added to overcome the latent heat of fusion, latent heat of vaporization, etc.
in the solid state, water is ___dense than in liquid
less. ie ice cubes float
a substance changing from solid to liquid is called…
melting
a liquid converted to a gas is called…(not condens)
vaporization
solid to gas conversion (brad)
sublimation
gas to solid conversion
deposition
evaporation (vape before boil)
change from liquid to gas at temp below it’s boiling point
speed of evaporation process decreased or increased by…
atmospheric pressure
condensation (dew from nowhere)
the phase change in substance from gas to liquid. temp decrease, causing intermolecular cohesive forces
hydrologic cycle (logically warm water rises) life cycle
warm air containing water vapor rises and cools
rate of chemical reactions is determined by..(bumper cars)
how frequently reacting atoms and molecules interact. also temp and shape
catalysts
accelerate chemical reactions
inhibitors
decrease reaction rates
some types of reactions release energy in the form of…
heat or light, or transfer electrons or H ion, or chemical bonds are broken
reactive radicals (vamp react light)
chemical bonds are broken down by heat or light, combined w/ electrons and form new bonds
ex. of radical reactions (radical FOG)
ozone and greenhouse gasses fossil fuels
4 basic types of cells (MENC)
epithelial, connective, nervous and muscular
covalent bonds in macromolecules formed by an..(cove fruit) - this is known as…
(end the energy) endergonic (absorption of energy) removal or loss of water. this is known as dehydration or condensation. (this is how peptide ions are formed. Peptides are 2 or more amino acids)
dehydration or condensation requires…
energy
covalent bonds can be broken by an…(ex bond)
exergonic addition of water, known as hydrolysis
carbohydrates (just sugar)
sugars or starch found in all living organisms
monomers that join together to form carbohydrates have this formula
C(n)H2(n)O(n)
carbohydrate monomers are usually how many carbons long? (start w/ your fav)
3, 4, 5, 6 carbons long
formula for glucose
C6H12O6
2 monosaccharides joined by dehydration form…(just di)
disaccharides
sucrose (fg makes s)
a common disaccharide made up of 2 monosaccharides, one glucose and one fructose
polysaccharides
carbohydrate molecules formed by large numbers of linked monosaccharides.
animals store monosaccharide glucose in the…
polysaccharide glycogen
glycogen is formed by…(dried fruit) and stored in…
dehydration synthesis and stored mainly in the liver and muscle
when glucose is needed for energy…(use gin - how liver converts it)
JUST amino acids and break down of glycogen are caused by hydrolysis. Everything else is dehydration.
glycogen is hydrolyzed into glucose
plants store carbohydrates as the..(think storage - micro)
polysaccharide starch
different forms of carbohydrates - (3 branches)
linear, branched, helix shaped
linear carbohydrates ex. (line in cellulite chin)
cellulose and chitin - they form structures
cellulose is a major component in…where EXACTLY?
rigid cell wall in plants
glycoproteins and glycolipids are…(costco - see friends)
molecules that contain carbohydrates and other macromolecules, help w/ cell recognition
C and H bonds are called…(C and H has fat)
fatty-acid chains
fats are used for..(cushion - CSI)
energy storage, cushioning, and insulation
fats are found in..
oils, butter, and meat
waxes (waxy alcohol)
contain long fatty acid chains connected to alcohols. they are hydrophobic and are used by living things to stay dry
where are waxes found? (bird waning)
bird feathers and leaves
phospholipid functions (think bi-layer)
form semipermeable membrane around cells, help separate aqueous compartments.
steroids (steroid at circus)
have a 4-ring structure that includes cholesterol, sex hormones, hormones of adrenal cortex.
steroids often function as…(get the message)
chemical messengers
amino acids are composed of…(amine 4)
central carbon, amine group, carboxylic acid, and a side group.
peptide bond in proteins are the…
the link between amino acids in covalent bond
fibrous, hydrophobic proteins like keratin and collagen have hydrophobic___on their surface
hydrophobic amino acids on their surface and are not water soluble
globular proteins (glob in water)
have hydrophilic surface amino acids and are soluble in water.
proteins associated w/ the cell membrane have…(just bi-layer def)
a layer of hydrophobic amino acids sandwiched between layers of hydrophilic amino acids.
proteins are embedded in membranes when they function as..(pb in tunnel)
transport or signal transfer
enzymes speed up reactions by…(speed of energy)
lowering energy required by the system to initiate the reaction
2 types of reactions
exergonic (release energy) or endergonic (require energy)
enzyme activity is affected by…(envir)
environmental conditions, such as temp and ph level
active site (active action)
where catalysis occurs
ex. of an enzyme (eskimo pepsi)
pepsin
pepsin
produced and secreted by stomach cells to initiate protein digestion in stomach
3 components of nucleotides (ocean - 3 things floating - same 3 things)
nitrogenous base, a sugar, a phosphate group.
2 nucleic acids in living systems are..(the bige ones)
DNA and RNA
in humans, DNA can contain a few hundred…(baseball)
DNA bases to more than a million bases.
genes made of DNA are located on…
chromosomes. primary unit of heredity. most contain info to synthesize protein, a few code for other molecules that assemble protein.
DNA contains..(tide - same)
nucleotides composed of deoxyribose sugar, one of 4 nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine) and a phosphate molecule
messenger RNA (mina- plant)
located in nucleus. transcribes genetic code from DNA template for protein.
rRNA - located where? (where everything is located…)
receives info from mRNA. rRNA located in cytoplasm.
tRNA - transfer RNA (UPS)
brings amino acid dictated by mRNA code to the ribosomes. ribosome then provides catalytic environment for peptide bond to form.
ribosomes are the site of…
protein synthesis from amino acid monomers.
the sequence of nucleotides is important in…(build pb)
the process of building proteins. errors are called mutations.
nucleic acids can be found in small amounts in…(eat nuc)
all foods that contain protein
single circular chromosome (basic living thing)
bacteria
how many chromosomes in a human
46
genes cluster in areas between DNA that..(?)
have unknown functions
how many genes do humans have?
25,000
structural genes are converted into…(structure for mina)
short-lived RNA, messenger RNA, that is decoded by ribosomes and assembled into proteins to build living things
regulatory genes (regulate pb jeans)
control expression of protein-coding genes by turning on or off activity, either directly or through an intermediate.
sides and ladder of DNA are made of…(smile sugar) dark repair
sides are phosphate and sugar molecules, ladder is adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine.
A is always paired with..(me and Tu)
T, and G and is always paired with C. this is called base complimentary pairs.
complimentary bases are linked by 2 hydrogen bonds for..(me and Tu - just 2)
A and T, and 3 hydrogen bonds for G and C.
chromatids (chromosome’s twin)
two identical copies of DNA made before a cell can replicate. they are then separated.
two strands of DNA run in___directions
opposite - called anti-parallel
sense strand (sensing 5 to 3)
DNA coded in 5 to 3 direction
anti-sense strand (anti-epiq)
strand used in DNA replication and transcription
law of dominance (not dominant)
mendel’s third law - recessive allele is only expressed when both alleles are recessive.
children inherit how many copies of each gene?
2 - one from each parent, and 2 alleles for each gene.
ex of phenotypes
eye color, blood type
inherited traits
traits passed from parent to offspring through gametes (eggs or sperm) each gamete carries 1 chromosome of the pair (and one copy of each gene).
non-mendelian inheritance occurs…(think alleles)
when there are factors other than dominant and recessive alleles. ie. multiple alleles - blood types A, B, O.
ex of non-mendelian inheritance (in the middle or share)
incomplete dominant-recessive that leads to an intermediate (red and white flowers makes pink), co - dominance (AB blood expresses both A and B) and interactions between genes called “epistasis”.
if 3:1 or 9:3:3:1 relationship not obtained, then…
it’s non-mendelian inheritance
ions (eye on pos. or neg)
atoms w/ a positive or negative charge
cations
positive charge, anions - negative charge
ionic compounds
compounds w/ ionic bonds
intensive physical properties (too intense heat)
boiling point, melting point - does not depend on the amount of the substance present.
extensive physical properties (extend mass)
mass and volume - change depending on amount of matter present
above absolute zero…(keep moving)
(O K or -273 C) molecules are in constant motion
RNA consists of…(rib tide)
ribonucleotides w/ a ribose sugar, nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine or uracil)
can be digested by cells (pops can be digested)
nucleosides
bond between 2 opposite charged ions metals tend to be…(metal cat eyes)
cations, and nonmetals anions.
electrons___in energy the further away from the nucleus
increase
nucleotides (Smile, S is before T)
simply a nucleoside with an additional phosphate group or groups
soluble in water and conduct electricity (watery eyes)
ionic bonds
globular proteins function as…(glob roll in the hay - HAE)
carrier molecules like hemoglobin, antibodies, and enzymes.
important properties of h20 (HAC - corner - you know this)
hydrogen bonding, cohesiveness, adhesiveness
important properties of h20 relating to heat (specifically lazy heat)
high specific heat, high latent heat, and high heat of vaporization
polypeptides
macromolecules formed from amino acids, many peptides linked together
they assemble proteins in the order specified by codons
ribosomes
typically a single-stranded molecule
RNA
