chem ch 21 Flashcards
energy neither
created nor destroyed
need of energy is to do…
mechanical work, cells need energy for their work (which is moving molecule or ions across the cell membrane)
in humans, energy is released from..
food
plants use…
co2 and water + sunlight to make food = C6H12O6 (glucose) - potential energy
we need energy to…
do work and maintain the body temperature
in order for humans to use energy…
the energy should have some requirements
requirements for energy (energy stored in heat should be released gradually when needed in different, the SHRGD)
1) energy must be released from food gradually
2) energy must be stored in accessible form, like gylcogen
3) to maintain body temp, energy must be released as heat
4) when we need different forms of energy, rather than heat, to be available to do biochemical reactions that are not favorable
5) energy should be released when and where it’s needed
A —–B
endothermic releases E
and exothermic absorbs E
delta H
change in enthalpy (heat) - energy of the product is lower than energy of reactant - means the change is negative for favorable reaction
delta S
change in entropy - means more disorder. it should be positive for favorable reactions
delta G (g is favorable)
gibbs, free energy. favorable reaction. free energy should be negative.
the greater the amount of free energy, the greater the…
reaction proceeds towards forming reactant (speeds it up)
endergonic reaction
reactions that need the energy input from any external sources
exergonic reaction
when the reaction is releasing energy - change is negative
photosynthesis is endergonic or exergonic?
endergonic
oxidation is endergonic or exergonic?
exergonic
in living systems, reactions are following this principle (just pathways)
in the series of chemical reactions (called pathways), energy which is stored in product of an endergonic reaction, should be released in exergonic reactions
pathways (in the middle of the path)
in living systems. A series of biochemical reactions that are connected by intermediates at which the product of one reaction is the reactant of the following reaction, and so on.
pathways always use..(everyone needs them)
enzymes to complete reaction
glucose-6-phosphate
phosphate on the 6th carbon (on top)
glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate is endergonic or exergonic?
endergonic - it’s gained energy stores energy in chemical bonds
replication of DNA takes place in…
nucleus
protein synthesis is where?
ribosomes
golgi - synthesis of…(golgi likes big macs)
synthesis of macromolecules
lysosome
break down unwanted molecules
cristae
where ATP production is happening
mitochondrial matrix purpose
The space surrounded by the inner membrane of a mitochondrion. folding is cristae
mitochondria have how many layers?
2 - outer and inner.
ATP
adenosine triphosphate - the only important energy carrier
the number of mitochondria is greatest where? (maybe mitochondria there - MEHB)
eyes, brain, heart and muscles
metabolism
the set of chemical reactions that take place in an organism. metabolic pathways
types of metabolic pathways (the shape - you know this)
1) linear pathway
2) cyclic pathway
3) spiral sequence
linear pathway (the line from A to D)
the product of one is the reactant of next reactant. Final product through a series of intermediate molecules
enzyme #1, #2, #3
A - B - C - D
cyclic pathway
a series of reactions that reproduce one of the reactants (ie citric acid cycle)
A - B (A becomes B, B becomes C, C becomes D)
C - D
spiral sequence
the SAME set of enzymes are progressively used to break down or make a molecule. A becomes B, B becomes C, etc. in a spiral pattern
food can be oxidized into..(not glucose)
carbon dioxide, water, and energy (heat and different than heat)
energy production (aka metabolism) from food - stages (DACE for energy)
1) digestion
2) acetyl coenzyme A production
3) citric acid cycle
4) electron transfer and ATP production
2 types of metabolic reactions
anabolism and catabolism
catabolism
exergonic
anabolism
endergonic
digestion
happening in mouth, with help of saliva. can happen in stomach or small intestine. large molecule is converted to smaller - ie carbohydrates or proteins or lipids.
carbohydrate can be converted to..
glucose
protein converted to…
amino acid
lipids broken down to…
glycerol and fatty acids
stage 2: acteyl CoA production (type of bond)
bond between acetyl group and coenzyme A. bond is sulfide bond, high energy bond. 2C molecule.
acteyl CoA is a product of…(CoA is so general)
all different classes of food that
O
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carries CH3-C group (acetyl group) into citric acid cycle
stage 3 - citric acid cycle (3 is not your enemy) AND where it takes place
happening in the matrix, which acetyl group is oxidized to CO2 and energy, that we exhale later
energy from citric acid is stored in…
chemical bonds of reduced enzymes (NADH) and FADH2 and some as ATP
stage 4) ATP production (atp is the fad)
NADH and FADH2, which takes place at the inner surface of inner membrane of mitochondria.
the electrons from the reduced NADH and FADH2 will join..
the electron transfer chain and ATP production
at the end of ATP production and electron transfer…
the electrons and H+ ions from all of those coenzymes producing ATP and O2 we inhale and H+ will form water
ADP
adenosine diphosphate (1 less phosphate than ATP)
hydrolysis of ATP - just think of the rocket
one phosphate is removed and that releases energy
reverse reaction - ADP
ADP converted to ATP
ADP more or less energy than ATP?
less
adding phosphate in any reaction is called…
phosphorylation
ADP to ATP is endergonic or exergonic?
endergonic and we need one phosphate
downhill reaction
exergonic reaction - when energy of reactant is higher than energy of product
uphill reaction
endergonic - energy of reactant is higher than product
unfavorable reaction
needs energy
favorable
produces energy
coupling reaction
curved arrow
know positive and negative signs
positive sign is when reaction is using energy for endergonic reaction
oxidation
gaining of O2 loss of e-, loss of H
reduction reaction (3 things)
gain of electron, gain of H, loss of O
most metabolic reactions are this (reduce the reaction)
reduction/oxidation reaction. so we need oxidizing or reducing agents
coenzymes that are acting as reducing or oxidizing agents - important coenzymes (just add fem phos)
1) NAD+ (oxidized form), NADH+/H+ (reduced form)
2) flavin adenine dinucleotide FAD and FADH2
3) NADP+ and NADPH/H+
4) FMN and FMNH2
NAD+ —— NADH needs…
H-, so it’s NAD+ + H- —–NADH/H+
FAD and FADH2 - reduced and oxidized - which is which?
FAD - oxidized, FADH2 - reduced
NADP+ and NADPH/H+
NADP+ (oxidized) and NADPH/H+ (reduced) = nicotineamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
reduced form of all of the coenzymes are transferring…(2 things!)
electrons and H+ into stage #4
citric acid cycle final product (finally 2,4, 1)
2 CO2, 4 molecules of reduced co-enzymes, 1 ATP (GTP)
citric acid cycle takes place where?
matrix
1st production of CO2 in which step of krebs cycle?
step 3
gibbs formula (g - hats)
G = H - T(S). Remember one H and one S has to be negative and positive
opposite of photosynthesis
oxidation. Photo uses energy, oxi releases it
food is broken down into…(NOT glucose)
CO2 + H2O + energy. The energy can be 2 types - heat or different than heat like a chemical bond
pyruvate
final product of all classes of food
which pathway is directly converted into AcetylCoA?
lipids
citric cycle - step 1
C2 (this is acetyl coA) + C4 (this is oxaloacetate) = C6 (citrate) + (biproduct) HsCoA + H+
citric cycle - step 2 (2 steps in 2 - dehydrate and rehydrate)
citrate (3 alcohol) is dehydrated to A conitate, and then rehydrated to form to secondary alcohol (isocitrate)
step 2 is exergonic or endergonic?
endergonic - +3.2 kcal
citric cycle - step 3
C6 + NAD+ = C5 + CO2
step #4 (
C5 —- C4 + CO2. Product is succinyl CoA
entire point of citric acid cycle is to produce…
reduced form of coenzymes
1st reduced coezyme in which step?
2
step 1 - exergonic or endergonic? (exit at the 1st and 4th floor)
exergonic
step 4 - exergonic or endergonic? (exit on the 1st and 4th floor)
exergonic.
step 5
rebuilding oxaloacetate - covert succinyl CoA + GTP (from GDP). C4 - C4 and GDP - GTP
GDP and GTP are just…
ADP and ATP
step #6
oxidation of succinate and production of fumarate. Needs to be coupled w/ FAD - FADH2
step #7
we hydrate fumerate, + H2O. C4 + C4 becomes alcohol.
step #7 is endergonic or exergonic? (End at the 2nd and 7th step)
endergonic
step #8 (ox at 8)
reformation of oxaloacetate. Oxidation of marate is occuring. Reduction of NAD+
memorize this - net result of citric acid cycle
Acetyl-CoA + 3NAD+ FAD + GDP + HPO4(-2) + H2O — (product) CoA + 2CO2 + GTP + 3NADH + 3H+ + FADH2 + GTP
1 NADH produces how much ATP? (nada, it’s 3)
3
1 FADH2 produces how much ATP? (2 fad)
2
1 GTP produces how much ATP?
1 ATP
how much ATP is produced in each citric acid cycle?
12 ATP
GDP has 2…
phosphate groups in the end of glucose, and GTP is made by adding one phosphate group - this is endergonic
the rate of the citric acid cycle can be controlled by…(ACE the rate)
the body's cellular need for: 1) when we need ATP 2) need for reduced coenzyme 3) energy (heat) citric acid cycle stops when we don't need these...
which step is catabolism?
electron transfer chain
main function of electron transport chain - (remove the ox)
oxidation of reduced coenzyme to provide enough energy for ATP production
respiratory reaction in ETS (just add it up, 2 4 4 2)
O2 + 4e- + 4H+ — 2 H2O
electron transport takes place where?
inner membrane
what coenzyme is moving along the ETS?
coenzyme Q. it takes electrons along the chain
oxidatative phosphorylation - also called electron transport chain - 2 stages
oxidation of reduced coenzymes and phosphorylation of ADP
how many coenzymes in ETS are fixed?
4, 1 is moving
H+ in ETS are moving from where to where?
inner mitochondarian membrane to inner space (happens against H ion concentration gradient)
in ETS chain, how much ATP is produced?
citric acid cycle - my version
step 1 - becomes 5 carbon w/ OH in the middle left
step 2 - the OH moves down one carbon
step 3 - NAD is added, COO from middle is removed and second to last C is now =O
step 4 - NAD added again, and last C (the COO-) is turned back into S-CoA
step 5 - GDP is turned into GTP, SCoA is removed and it’s back to the original 4 carbon
step 6 - FAD is added, the middle Cs lose an H and it becomes a double bond.
step 7 - H2O is added, double bond becomes single and OH is added to 2nd C.
step 8 - NAD is added, OH is gone and it becomes = O.
quick citric acid cycle - step 1
you know the starting - plus water. and becomes 5 and Oh you’re in the middle
quick citric acid cycle 4
4) hello NAD - hello CoA
5) hello GTP, bye CoA
6) hello FAD, the middle is now double
quick citric acid cycle - 7 (7 pianos in water)
hello water, back to the original 4 except w/ OH
quick citric acid cycle 2 (TV dehydrated - OH you’re now second to last)
First remove water, then add water. OH, you’re second to last
quick citric acid cycle 3 (cig in hall)
hello NAD - bye COO in the middle, OH becomes double
quick citric acid cycle 4 (cig plant)
Hello NAD and SCoA, SCoA is back in last place
quick citric acid cycle 5 (couch racer)
Hello GDP. back to the original 4 w/out the O=.
quick citric acid cycle 6 (cat tree - hello fad, make an X)
hello FAD, the middle is now double and welcome FADH2
quick citric acid cycle 7 (piano)
hello H20, bye double, OH is 2nd now
quick citric acid cycle 8 (back to the start, but with NAD) hallway
hello NAD, OH, you’ve become double. Welcome NADH
hydroylsis is exergonic or endergonic? (hydro releases water)
exergonic
phosphorylation is exergonic or endergonic?
endergonic
photosynthesis formula..
it’s just CO2 + H20 = C6H12O6 + O2 (glucose and oxygen)
oxidation formula…(just oxidate sugar and you get CO2 and water)
is just the opposite of photosynthesis - C6H12O6 + O2 = CO2 + 6H2O (glucose and oxygen = carbon dioxide and water)
Energy is stored in the products of….
an endergonic reaction pathway
purpose of nucleus
replication of DNA
purpose of mitochondria
synthesis of ATP
structure of ATP
has the 3 phosphate groups on left, but 4 Os connecting them. On the right is adenosine - 5 carbon sugar with 2 nitrogen hexagons at the top
ATP plus water (hydrolysis) is…
ADP
ADP plus hydrogen is…
ATP
AMP is
adenosine monophophate - same structure as ATP just one phosphate group AND it has OH on the left, not an O
removal of phosphate through hydrolysis (formation of ADP) is..(rocket shooting off phosphate releases energy)
exergonic
adding a phosphate to ADP (phosphorylation) is exergonic or endergonic? (takes energy to glue something on)
endergonic
Coupling allows the energy…
stored in one chemical compound to be transferred to other compounds
structure of acetyl coenzyme A is…
O
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CH3 - C - S - CoA
final net products of citric acid cycle (the threes, one 2, and the rest 1s)
3 NADH+, 3H+, 1FADH2, 1 GTP, 1 HScoA, 2 CO2,
only spontaneous reactions..
release energy. nonspontaneous are endergonic
pyruvate is coupled with..
ADP and ATP production because ADP to ATP is unfavorable - pyruvate is favorable
Oxidative phosphorylation is…
the synthesis of ATP from ADP using energy released in the electron-transport chain
