Watson Respiratory Flashcards
functions of the respiratory system
speech
acid-base balance
raising the pressure in the abdominopelvic cavity
assisting in BP regulation
air enters the lungs through the hollow passages known collectively as the ___ tract
respiratory tract
the trachea contains __ shaped rings
C
the rings in the trachea are ___ cartilage
hyaline
goblet cells secrete __ into the respiratory tract
mucus
the framework of the larynx is formed by how many pieces of cartliage
9
the largest piece of cartilage in the larynx is the __ cartilage
thyroid cartilage
the kind of cells in the respiratory tract are ___ ___ __ epithelium
pseudostratified ciliated columnar
the oropharynx changes from pseudostratified ciliated columnar to __ __ epithelium to help resist food abrasion
stratified squamous
A higher pitched sound is made when the true vocal cords are
adducted
as we move down the bronchial tree, there are ___ smooth muscle tissue
more
as we move down the bronchial tree, there are ___ goblet cells
less
as we move down the bronchial tree, there is ___ cartilage
less
as we move down the bronchial tree, theres a ___ in the height of epithelium
height
type __ alveolar cells secrete surfactant
type 2
type __ alveolar cells are squamous epithelium
type 1
type 1 makes up __ % of the cells in the alveoli
90
One of the factors that keeps the lungs from collapsing
intrapleural pressure is less than intrapulmonary pressure
caused by the formation of hydrogen bonds between water molecules
surface tension
a detergent-like chemical secreted by bronchial smooth muscle
surfactant
The matching of ventilation to perfusion
V/Q ratio
the ___ ___ capacity is the volume of air normally left in the lungs after tidal expiration
functional residual
The ___ volume is the amount of air left in the lungs after maximal expiration
residual
The inspiratory capacity is equal to the ___ reserve volume plus the __ volume
inspiratory reserve volume
tidal volume
The ___ capacity is the total amount of exchangeable air
vital capacity
What does not affect the efficiency of pulmonary gas exchange
the percent saturation of hemoglobin
Which of these effects how much gas dissolves in a liquid
partial pressure
solubility
surface tension
partial pressure
solubility
___ in arterial blood is normally almost totally saturated
hemoglobin
When the partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood drops slightly, the percent saturation of Hb drops __ __
only slightly
Increased partial pressure of carbon dioxide, temperature, and hydrogen ion s all ___ Hb’s affinity for oxygen
decrease
the main way CO2 is transported in the blood
bicarbonate
substance that decreases Hb’s affinity for oxygen
BPG
enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbonic acid
Carbonic anhydrase
the movement of anions into the RBC to balance the outward movement of bicarbonate
chloride shift
hemoglobin bound to CO2
carbaminohemoglobin
Hyperventilation causes a/an ___ in partial pressure of CO2, which causes a/an ___ in blood pH.
decrease
increase
Hypoventilation causes a/an ___ in partial pressure of CO2, which causes a/an ___ in blood pH
increase
decrease
the basic rhythm for breathing is maintained by the respiratory rhythm generator of the ___
VRG
The ___ ___ group triggers action potentials in the phrenic nerve and intercostal nerves
ventral respiratory group
The __ ___ group stimulates inspiratory muscles with the ventral respiratory group
dorsal respiratory group
The respiratory groups in the ___ ___ ___ maintain eupnea
medullary reticular formation
___ has 3 subclasses: emphysema, small airway disease, and chronic bronchitis
COPD
Asthma is characterized by bronchoconstriction, airway ____, and excessive ___ ___
inflammation
mucus secretion
includes only structures that contain alveoli
Respiratory zone
movement of air in and out of lungs
Pulmonary ventilation
movement of gases between lungs and blood
Pulmonary gas exchange
movement of gases through blood
Gas transport
movement of gases between blood and tissues
Tissue gas exchange
Respiratory System fluid Synthesizes an enzyme involved in the production of the hormone
angiotensin-II
Nasopharynx; posterior to nasal cavity; lined with ___ ____ ____ epithelium
pseudostratified ciliated columnar
Laryngopharynx – last segment; extends from __ bone to ___
hyoid bone to esophagus
keeps food and liquids out of remaining respiratory tract; also houses vocal cords
Larynx
In the Larynx two different types of epithelium are found
Stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium and Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Kind of epithelium that protects larynx from mechanical stress superior to vocal cords where both food and air pass through
Stratified squamous nonkeratinized
epithelium that is found inferior to vocal cords; cilia serve to propel mucus and debris up and out of larynx as one “clears their throat”
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
extend from arytenoid cartilages to thyroid cartilage; close off glottis during swallowing
Vestibular folds
inferior to vestibular folds; also attached to both arytenoid cartilages and thyroid cartilage
True vocal cords
elastic bands at core of vocal cords; give structure a whitish appearance; vibrate to produce sound when air passes over them
Vocal ligaments
Sound ___ is determined by the force of the airstream; greater force of expiration = louder sound
Loudness
Air movement over the vocal cords only produces a ___ sound; actual speech requires coordinated efforts of structures
a buzzing sound
begins in inferior neck and extends to mediastinum
Trachea
Hyaline cartilage rings cover anterior and lateral surfaces of trachea in a C shape, leaving ___ surface uncovered
Posterior
Posterior surface of trachea is covered with \_\_\_ connective tissue and smooth muscle; allow esophagus to expand during swallowing
Elastic
last tracheal cartilage ring
Carina
forms “hook” that curves down and back to form partial rings that surround the first branches of bronchial tree
Carina
contains sensory receptors that trigger a violent cough reflex
Carina
Mucosa of trachea (like the
inferior larynx that precedes it)
is lined with __ ___ ___ epithelium
and goblet cells
pseudostratified
ciliated squamous
As airways divide and get smaller, histology changes significantly; primary bronchi are nearly identical to the trachea, but three changes are evident as bronchi become smaller
- Cartilage changes from C-shaped to complete rings to progressively fewer irregular plates
- Epithelium gradually changes from respiratory epithelium in larger bronchi to columnar cells in smaller bronchi
- Amount of smooth muscle increases and hyaline cartilage decreases as bronchi get progressively smaller; tiny airways must be able to change diameter to control air flow in bronchioles and alveoli
Bronchioles have __ ___ epithelium with few cilia, if any; enclosed
within thick ring of smooth muscle
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Bronchioles have no ___ cartilage
hyaline cartilage
Conducting zone of respiratory tract ends when inspired air reaches ___ bronchioles
Terminal
Terminal bronchioles branch into two or more smaller ___ bronchioles surrounded by thin layer of smooth muscle
Respiratory
Respiratory zone begins with __ bronchioles
Respiratory bronchioles
Each respiratory bronchiole branches into two or more
alveolar ducts
Type II alveolar cells – small ___ cells
Cuboidal
responsible for synthesis of surfactant
Type II
describes relationship between pressure and volume; states that at constant temperature and number of gas molecules, pressure and volume of a gas are inversely related
Boyle’s law
generated by pull of gravity on air around us
Atmospheric pressure
air pressure within alveoli
Intrapulmonary pressure
pressure within pleural cavity
Intrapleural pressure
rises and falls with inspiration and expiration but will always equalize with atmospheric pressure at equilibrium
Intrapulmonary pressure
never equalizes with atmospheric pressure but instead is about
4 mm Hg below intrapulmonary pressure
Intrapleural pressure
What happens if intrapleural pressure increases to level at or above atmospheric pressure?
Intrapleural pressure no longer exerts suction effect that prevents lungs from collapsing; added pressure enhances lungs’ elastic recoil; lungs immediately collapse
Three primary physical factors of respiratory tract and lungs that influence overall effectiveness of pulmonary ventilation
Airway resistance, Alveolar surface tension, Pulmonary compliance
last physical factor that influences effectiveness of gas exchange; ability of lungs and chest wall to stretch
Pulmonary compliance
Pulmonary compliance is determined by 3 things
Degree of alveolar surface tension, Distensibility of elastic tissue, Ability of the chest wall to move
If compliance decreases the lungs are less able to expand and effectiveness of pulmonary ventilation ___
decreases
instrument that produces a graph that records normal and forced inhalation and exhalation
spirometer
volume inspired /expired; normal quiet ventilation
TV
volume forcibly inspired after a normal TV inspiration
IRV
volume forcibly expired after a normal tidal expiration
ERV
air remaining in lungs after forceful expiration
RV
Inspiratory capacity =
TV + IRV
Functional residual volume =
ERV + RV
Vital capacity =
TV + IRV + ERV
Total lung capacity =
IRV + TV + ERV + RV
During pulmonary __ ___, oxygen diffuses from air in alveoli to blood in pulmonary capillaries, and carbon dioxide flows in opposite direction
gas exchange
Two processes are involved in gas exchange:
Pulmonary gas exchange, Tissue gas exchange
involves exchange of gases between alveoli and blood
Pulmonary gas exchange
involves exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries and body’s cells
Tissue gas exchange
important factor that affects gas exchange; pressure that a gas exerts and its solubility in water are important for driving pulmonary and tissue gas exchange; described by two laws
gas behavior
law – each gas in a mixture exerts its own pressure, called its partial pressure (Pgas); total pressure of a gas mixture is sum of partial pressures of all its component gases
DALTONS
law – degree to which a gas dissolves in a liquid is proportional to both its partial pressure and its solubility in liquid
Henry’s
Pulmonary gas exchange, or ____ respiration, is diffusion of gases between alveoli and blood; oxygen diffuses from air in alveoli into blood in pulmonary capillaries while carbon dioxide simultaneously diffuses in opposite direction
external respiration
Three additional factors affect efficiency of pulmonary gas exchange
Surface area of respiratory membrane, Thickness of respiratory membrane, Ventilation-perfusion matching (coupling)
the degree of match between amount of air reaching alveoli (ventilation) and amount of blood flow (perfusion) in pulmonary capillaries; two phenomena keep ventilation and perfusion closely matched or coupled
Ventilation-perfusion matching (coupling)
Tissue gas exchange (___ respiration) is exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and tissues; partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide in systemic capillaries and tissues provide pressure gradients that drive diffusion of gases
Internal respiration
Factors Affecting Efficiency of Tissue Gas Exchange
Surface area available for gas exchange, Distance over which diffusion must occur, Perfusion of tissue
Hemoglobin binds and releases oxygen by two reactions:
loading and unloading
BPG binds with Hb, __ its affinity for oxygen which increases unloading reaction of oxygen to tissues
Reducing
Levels of __ also increase in response to epinephrine, norepinephrine, thyroxine, testosterone, and human growth hormone
BPG
Carbon dioxide is transported from tissues back to lungs in blood three ways:
dissolved in plasma, bound to Hb, and as bicarbonate ions
% of total CO2 is transported to lungs dissolved in blood plasma
7-10
% of total CO2 is transported to lungs bound to Hb
20
% of CO2 is transported in blood in form of bicarbonate ions
70
CO2 quickly diffuses into erythrocytes where it encounters ___ ___ (CA), an enzyme
Carbonic anhydrase
Most HCO3– diffuses into blood plasma while H+ binds to Hb, which acts as a buffer, resisting change in pH; would cause plasma to become more acidic
HCO3–
HCO3– carries a negative charge; counteracted by
chloride shift
to facilitate movement of CO2 into alveoli: ___ ___ is re-formed in erythrocyte from bicarbonate and hydrogen ions; it is then converted into water and CO2 by carbonic anhydrase
Carbonic acid
neurons in __ influence respiratory rhythm but are not responsible for maintaining ___
pons, eupnea
group of neurons that creates basic rhythm for breathing; found within a structure called the ventral respiratory column
RRG
found in anterior and lateral portion of medulla, contains both inspiratory and expiratory neurons
VRG
found in posterior medulla; primarily involved in inspiration, sending impulses along same pathways as VRG
DRG
peripheral chemoreceptors Detect wide variety of stimuli (PCO2 and H+) but are most sensitive to __ in arterial blood
PO2
Restrictive lung diseases
Decrease pulmonary compliance and reduce effectiveness of inspiration by increasing alveolar surface tension and destroying elastic tissue of lungs
Inspiratory capacity, vital capacity, and total lung capacity are decreased, making effective pulmonary ventilation difficult
