Block 5 Flashcards
Primary delusion
Cannot be caused by any other factor- result of schizophrenia
Secondary delusion
Related to underlying mood
Which area of the hypothalamus is importnat in memory?
Mamillary bodies
Brief psychotic disorder
Display of psychotic behaviour such as hallucinations or delusions which occurs after stressful event. It lasts from one day to one month
Flight of ideas
Rapid shifting of ideas that makes speech difficult to follow
Telencephalon
Basal ganglia, cerebral cortex (motor + sensory) and lateral ventricles
Diencephalon
Hypothalamus, thalamus and posterior pitutiary gland
Mesencephalon
Cerebral aqueduct, cerebral peduncles and tegmentum
Metencephalon
Pons, cerebellum and 4th ventricle
Myelencephalon
Medulla and inferior 4th ventricle
Mesenchymal cells
Give rise to bone marrow, adipose tissue and muscle cells
What is the neural plate formed of?
Neural tube and neural groove. These will form the neural tube and neural crest.
What does the surface ectoderm form?
Skin, olfactoy epithelia, eye lens, hair and nails.
Neural crest
Migration of cells from the neural crest. Progentior for PNS components like cranial nerves, Schwann cells and all ganglia, even adrenal medulla. Forms pia and arachnoid mater only.
Mesoderm
progenitor for Microglia, phagocytes of CNS
Notochord
Progenitor for nucleus pulposus. Also it is derived from mesoderm and causes ectoderm ->neuroectoderm and neural plate.
Neural tube
Develops from neuroectoderm neural tubes fusing. Forms CNS compoennts like oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells, brain, spinal cord and glia. It has an anterior neuropore that forms the brain and a posterior neuropore which is the conus medullaris of the spinal cord
What is the sulcus limitans?
Seperates the ventral motor systems from the dorsal sensory systems
What is tingling and weakenss an indication of?
Neurodegenerative disorder
What is the precursor to the motor neurones?
Basal plate
What is the precursor to the sensory neurons?
Alar plate
What is the role of Hox genes?
Positioning neurons along the craniocaudal axis, including motor neurons. Guides shape of skeleton for appositional growth
Decreased reflex, reduced tone and muscle fasiculations
Lower motor neurone lesion in the peripheral nerve. REDUCES everything if LOWER
Hypertonia, plantar reflex and fast reflex
Upper motor neuron reflex in the CNS, such as cortex, medulla. INCREASES everything if HIGHER
Which sensory pathways are anterior?
Sensory: ventral/anterior Spinothalamic for touch and pressure. Spinoreticular tract for awareness.
Motor: Medial corticospinal tract to control ipsilateral muscles.
Central cord lesion
Affects the centre of the spinal cord. This reduces the lateral spinothalamic tract for pain and tempareture sensation and medial corticospinal tract for weakness of the upper body
Which pathways are posterior?
Dorsal column for vibration, fine touch, propioception. Laterla corticospinal to control contralteral voluntary muscles.
What is spastic paresis/paralysis?
Occurs with UMN lesion with stiffness in legs and spasm of muscles
What is flaccid paresis/paralysis?
Occurs with LMN lesions with weakness and relaxation of the muscles
What is a hemisection lesion of the spinal cord?
One half of the spinal cord is affected. It causes Brown-Sequard syndrome with contralateral spinothalamic and ipsilateral dorsal column pathway. There will be ipsilateral spastic paresis due to corticospinal decussating in medulla
What is a transverse lesion of the spinal cord?
All motor and sensory pathways are damaged so there is ipsilateral and contralateral sensory and motor deficit.
Lateral nculeus of hypothalamus
Heat and sympathetic nervous system action
Subarachnoid mater
Between Arachnoid mater and dura mater containing CSF
What attaches the spinal cord to dura mater?
Denticulate ligament- continuation of pia mater
What attaches the spinal cord to dura mater?
Denticulate ligament- continuation of pia mater
Layers of the skull
SCALP
Skin, dense connective tissue, epicaranial aponeuorsis, loose connective tissue, periosteum eriosteum, , dura -> arachnoid -> pia mater
Ejaculation
L1 level of sympathetic nervous system
Absoprtion of CSF fluid
Arachnoid villi
Where does spinal cord terminate in neonates?
L3
Floor of the mouth sensory innervation
Lingual nerve
Effect of parietal lobe injury?
Loss of sensation due to somatosensory cortex being in parietal lobe, poor propioception, speech difficulties
Effect of temporal lobe injury
Receptive aphasia, visual memory and LTM, control of appetite, thrist and hunger due to location of hypothalaus
What is delirium?
Short onset with rapid change. Can be hyperactive and hallucinate or hypoactive and dazed. Theory is high dopamine, glutamate and noradrenaline is the cause
Effect of antipsychotics
Reduces dopamine that leads to increased prolactin and extrapyramdal effects. High rpolactin can cause infertility becaus it reduces FSH and LH and reduces libido. Acts on histamine receptor to cause weight gain
Antagonism of antipsychotics
Dopamine, histamine and serotonin
Lithium
Treatment for bioplar which causes diabetes insipidus by affecting kidney nephron
How does tyrosine form dopamine?
Via DOPA decarboxylase enzyme
WHere is adrenaline released?
Adrenal medulla
What supplies the anterior cerebral artery?
Frontal and parietal lobe
What does middle cerebral artery?
Frontal, temporal and parietal lobes
Branch of the facial artery
External carotid artery
What is the precursor of the posterior cerebral artery?
Basilar artery
What supplies Broca’s area?
Middle cerebral artery
Which arteries supply the cerebelllum?
Branches of basilar artery and vertebral artery
Which muscle is uninucleate?
Smooth muscle and cardiac muscle
Which muscle does not have sarcomeres?
Smooth muscle because it is not striated
Ependymal cells
Line the ventricles and are responsible for CSF production
What forms the blood brain barrier?
Astrocytes
Which cells are involved in neurodegenerative conditions?
Microglia
Effect of serotonin
Increases intestinal moitlity
Effect of acetylcholine
Increase salivation and cause dry mouth
What is a characteristic of REM sleep?
Beta waves and abolition of muscle tone and dreaming
Non REM stage 1
Theta waves
Non REM-stage 3
Bedwetting, sleepwalking and night terrors occur at this stage
What hormone increases both calcium and phosphate levels?
Vitamin D
What hormone increases calcium and decreases phosphate levels?
Parathyroid hormone- increases renal reabsorption and bowel absorption
What are the symtpoms of multiple slcerosis?
Attacks myelin sheath of mainly oligodendrocytes and cases vision problems, issues with thinking, depression and axniety
What is the primary site of calcium absorption?
Small intestine
Horner’s syndrome
Disrutpion of sympathetic nerve supply that causes drooping of upper eyelid, constricted pupil and lack of sweat
What is the blood supply to Wernicke’s area?
Inferior division of left middle cerebral artery
Where does infection most easily spread in the CNS?
Loose areolar tissue
Broca’s area
Superior left MCA
Hemiballismus
Involuntary jerking movements caused by contralteral lesion in the basal ganglia
Parkinson’s
Resting tremor, bradykinesia and rigidity
Lesion ot left motor cortex
Decrease in function of right side of the body
Alzhiemer’s disease
Phosphorylation of tau proteins causing neurofibrillary tangles
How does the sympathetic nervous systemaffect the pupil?
Causes the eye to dilate to take in more light
Cerebellar dysfunciton
Balance nad gait issues and co-ordination. Can occur in hypothyroidism
Where is the major store of calcium found?
Bone as hydroxyapatite crystals
What is the cellular effect of high intracellualr Ca2+?
Apoptosis
What is the role of calcium in neurons?
Prevents spontaneous depolarisation by regulating Na+ channels
What are the form of extracellular caclium?
Diffused free calcium or non-diffused calcium bound to albumin.
Where is calcium stored in the cell?
In the endoplasmic reticulum.
What is activate vitamin D?
Calitriol/ 1,25 hydroxycalciferol
What is the cause of hypercalcemia?
Excess PTH, high bone resorption, low oesteoblast availability, high vitamin D intake, acidosis which reduces calcium binding to albumin. It causes muscle weakness, constipation, reduced reflexes due to less membrane depolarisation.
What is the cause of hypocalcemia?
Hypoparathyroidism, hyperthyrodisim with excess calcitonin release, low bone resoprtion, high osteoblast activity, low vitamin D intake, alkalosis which increases albumin binding. Causes high neuron excitabiltiy that leads to tetanus (irregular muscle contraction), tingling/paraesthesia and muscle cramping.
Jugular foramen
Accessory nerve, vagus nerve and glossopharyngeal nerve
Sciatic nerve
L4 to S3
Foramen ovale
Mandibular nerve for muscles of mastication and sensory innervation to the anterior 2/3 of tongue via lingual nerve. Also has accessory meningeal artery.
Foramen rotundum
Maxillary nerve
Foramen spinosum
Contains middle meningeal artery which supplys the dura mater
Foramen magnum
Contains the vertebral arteries
Hypoglossal canal
Hypoglossal nerve
Cranial nerve test for gag reflex
Glossopharyngeal nerve
Cranial nerve test for torch
Optic nerve for sensation of light and culomotor nerve to cause pupil constriction and facial nerve for blinking
Cranial nerve test for rubbing cotton against cornea
Trigeminal nerve for sensation of rubbing and facial nerve for motor action of blinking
Where is the majority of CSF produced?
Choroid plexus in the lateral ventricles which contain ependymal cells but is present in all ventricles. Minroly produced by arachnoid mater
Sciatic nerve
L4 to S3. Compression causes shooting pain in lower back to feet. Caused by a slipped disc due to herniation of the nucleus pulposus through the weakened annulus fibrosus that occurs with age.
What causes intervertebral disc prolapse?
Lifting heavy objects and sitting position.
What is brachail neuralgia?
Compression of brachial plexus that causes pain/loss of function in arm and hand
What is lumbar pain?
Nerve root compression of the sciatic nerve.
What is the cause of extradural haematoma?
Middle meningeal artery, a branch of the maxillary being ruptured which occurs in the space between the arachnoid mater and dura mater
Where does cranial nerve 1 and 2 emerge?
Base of forebrain
Which cranial nerves from midbrian?
3 and 4
Which cranil nerves are in pons?
5, 6, 7, 8
Which cranial nerves in medulla?
9,10,11,12
Which region of the spinal cord is affected by a prolapse?
Ventral horn which causes a motor deficit
Brown Sequard syndrome
Ipsilateral corticospinal and spinocerebellar for motor and dorsal column, contralateral spinothalamic
Developmental dysplasia
Hip socket is too shallow to keep femoral head in place. Affects the proximal femur and can cause severe pain and arthritis. ore ocmmon in babies born in breech. Barlow and Ortolain test is used
Primary ossification centre
Diaphysis
Secondary ossification centre
Epiphysis
What separetes the ossification centre?
Epiphyseal growth plate
Where does the synovial joint form from?
Interzone area where cartilage is formed via intramembranous ossification. Fibrous joints also form from here and makes the synovial membrane and articular cartilage
Where does the synovial joint form from?
Interzone area where cartilage is formed via intramembranous ossification. Fibrous joints also form from here and makes the synovial membrane and articular cartilage
Where does the synovial joint form from?
Interzone area where cartilage is formed via intramembranous ossification. Fibrous joints also form from here and makes the synovial membrane and articular cartilage
What is a strain?
injurty to muscles/tendons
What is osteoarthritis?
Caused by overuse from repetitve movements that leads to joint breakdown. It is not an autoimmune conditions.
Ankylosing spondylitis
Inflammation that causes the vertebrae to fuse
Layers of spinal cord
Skin, supraspinous ligament, interspinous ligament, ligamentum flava, epidural space, subdural space, arachnoid space
What type of joint is the wrist?
Condyloid joint
hat type of joint is the atlantoaxial joint?
Pivot joint for rotation
What type of joint is the thumb joint?
Saddle joint
How is the spinous process formed?
By lamina posteriorly
Trendeenburg gait
Pelvis dips to paralysed side where gluteal muscles are weak
What separates the intervertberal discs from the spinal cord?
Posterior longitudinal ligament
What is the role of the superior colliculu?
Eye movement and visual processing
What is the role of the inferior colliculi?
Auditory processing
What is the role of pons?
Hearing, control of facial miscles and sensation
CT scan
X rays in a beam around the body tp show structural abnormalities like tumours or injuries
PET scan
Absorbace of radioactive tracer to measure brain disorders such as epilepsy or cancer
What is the cervical enlargement?
Brachial plexus at C4-T1
What is the lumbar enlargement?
Lumbar/sciatic nerve at L2-S3
What is the blood supply to the corpus callosum?
Anterior cerebral artery
What is the blood supply to the splenium of corpus callosum?
Posterior cerebral artery
fMRI
Magnetic field to measure oxygenated blood delivery to the brain via converting H atoms to images
Primary auditory cortex
Superior temporal gyrus
What is important for the functioning of parathyroid hormone?
Magnesium
How does parathyroid hormone affect bone?
Increases calcium levels by binding to osteoBLASTS to signal increased activity of osteoclasts. It is indirect.
What is the components of the skull?
Brain, CSF and blood
Effect of parathyroid hormone on ions?
Decreases renal phosphate absorption. Increases GI phosphate absorption by increasing vitamin D.
What does the subclavian artery form?
Vertebral artery, internal thoracic artery and thyrocervical trunk for inferior thyroid artery
Osteomalacia
Softening of bones due to vitamin D deficiency
What regulates calcium homeostatsis?
PTH and calcitonin and minorly by calcitriol
What regulates calcium absorption
PTH and calcitonin
Rickets
Osteomalacia in children with softened/weakened bones due to vitamin D deficiency, calcium or phosphate which causes delayed growth
Where is dopamine synthesised in the brain?
Substantia nigra and ventral tegmental are
Which muscarinic receptors are located in the sympathetic nervous system?
Sweat glands and eyes for dilation
Effect of calcitriol
Increases renal reabsorption of phosphate and osteolysis
Where is vitamin D converted into its active form?
Kidneys
What happens in liver?
Formation of 1.hydroxycalciferol
Action of glycine?
Influx of Cl- for inhibiton
Inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord
Glycine
Nucleus accumbens
Produces GABA and dopamine. Dopamine from ventral tegmentum binds to nucleus accumbens. Involved in the dopaminergic pathway for pleasure as part of the mesolimbic system. It is invovled in drug addiction
Which cells produce calcitonin?
Parafollicular cells of thyroid- calcitonininhibits osteoclasts
Glutamate receptor for fast transmission
AMPA receptor which is Na
+ and K+
NMDA receptor
Voltage gated Ca2+ channel- activated after sustained glucose release
Positive punishment
Adding effect like slapping to deter behaviour
Positive reinforcement
Adding effect to encourage behaviour
Negative reinforcement
Removing something to encorage behaviour
Negative punishment
Removing something to deter behaviour
Kainate receptor
Na+ and K+channel
