General Viticulture Flashcards
1
Q
Very sandy soils lose _____ quickly, and are _____ prone.
A
moisture, frost
2
Q
Soils rich in humus are often too high in _____ for grapes.
A
Nitrogen
3
Q
How does one correct an overly acid soil?
A
with ground limestone
4
Q
How does one correct an overly alkaline soil?
A
with gypsum
5
Q
French-American hybrids like a _____ soil.
A
slightly acid to neutral
6
Q
Generally, vinifera likes a slightly _____ soil.
A
alkaline
7
Q
What does an abundance of potassium do to pH levels?
A
raises them
8
Q
What are some things that too much boron in the soil can cause?
A
It can hasten maturity, increase sugar content, raise the grapes’ pH.
9
Q
Regarding temperature, how does well-drained soils compare to poorly-drained soils? What does this do?
A
Well-drained soils are warmer, and promote better vine growth and ripening.
10
Q
In areas where sugar is adequate, but acid is high, what kind of vineyard temperature is ideal and why?
A
You would want higher vineyard temperature with a wider spacing, so as much sunlight as possible falls on soil.
11
Q
It is recommended that slopes above 42 degrees North latitude be reduced in spacing from _____ to _____.
A
10 feet to 7 feet.
12
Q
Why must vine rows follow the contour?
A
To prevent gullies and erosion.
13
Q
What is the temperature comparison of a valley floor to a slope during the day? At night?
A
Night - Floor 2-4 degrees less than slope
Day - Floor - 2 degrees warmer than slope
14
Q
At what grade does cooler air tend to slide downhill?
A
2 degrees.
15
Q
The typical acre of California vinifera carries how many vines?
How many in Europe?
A
440 to 600
In Europe, it’s much more. Sometimes as much as 3,000.
16
Q
A fully mature, vigorous vine will fully use how many square feet?
A
60
17
Q
How many pounds of grapes per vine does vinifera usually yield?
A
8
18
Q
On average, a mature grapevine yields how many pounds of grapes?
A
8-12
19
Q
When did the BATF regulations become mandatory?
A
January 1, 1983
20
Q
What places are doing much of the research on new wine grapes?
A
The New York State Agricultural Testing Station at Geneva, and UC Davis.
21
Q
What place may be the original home to Pierce’s Disease? Why?
A
Gulf States in the US South, because many grapevines in the area are resistant to Pierce’s Disease.
22
Q
How many varieties of grapes are grown, and how many acres are planted?
A
6,000 varieties, 22 million acres
23
Q
Cultivation west of Greece didn’t happen until about when?
A
1,000 BC
24
Q
What is yeast?
A
one-celled plants that grow naturally on grape skins and convert sugar to alcohol.
25
What is viticulture?
The Science of growing grapes.
26
What does vigor refer to?
The intensity of a vine's growth.
27
What are trace elements of a vine?
zinc, manganese, iron and magnesium.
28
What is stock?
vegetable material for planting, such as grape stock for planting in a vineyard.
29
What is the stigma?
The female portion of a grape flower that accepts a pollen grain from the anther.
30
What is the secondary fermentation?
The slower fermentation accomplished away from air, that reduces the sugar left after the primary fermentation to alcohol.
31
What is a scion?
Wood that's grafted to a rootstock, or to aerial parts of a growing vine.
32
What is primary fermentation?
The initial, rapid fermentation during which about 2/3 of the sugar in the must is converted by yeast into alcohol.
33
What does pH measure?
The concentration of hydrogen ions.
34
What is a peduncle?
The stem that attaches the grape cluster to the shoot.
35
What is a pedicle?
The stem that attaches the grape berries to a cluster.
36
What is overcropping?
Allowing too many fruit clusters to form, which will weaken the overall crop.
37
What is an internode?
The portion of a shoot or cane between the nodes.
38
What is humus?
Fully decayed organic matter that adds structure and nutrients to a soil.
39
What is a corolla?
An individual grape flower before it blossoms.
40
What does calcareous mean?
A soil with a lot of calcium compounds in it, such as limestone or chalk soils.
41
What is the bed?
The prepared soil in which the grapevines are planted.
42
What is the anther?
The male structure of the grape flower that produces pollen.
43
Who certifies biodynamic farms and vineyards?
Demeter Biodynamic Trade Association
44
Who introduced biodynamic viticulture, and when?
Rudolf Steiner, 1924
45
What is biodynamic viticulture?
A concept that combines organic and sustainable farming, that also observes the rhythms and forces of the earth, to ultimately treat the land, vines and general area as a whole organism.
46
What is the role of California Certified Sustainable Winegrowing (CCSW)?
They provide incremental certification for wineries and vineyards based on a concept of continual improvement.
47
Who is VINEA?
A voluntary group of Walla Walla Valley winegrowers who promote a holistic , socially and environmentally responsible methodology.
48
What is IPM?
Integrated Pest Management. An umbrella term, mostly considered to be sustainable viticulture. It is often seen as a first step towards organic or biodynamic viticulture.
49
How many wineries in California use any organically grown grapes?
less than 10%
50
What are the requirements for an American or Australian wine to be labeled "organic"?
1. It must be produced from organically grown grapes.
| 2. It must contain no added sulfites.
51
What's often the first sign of grapevine yellows?
Delayed budbreak and very slow shoot growth.
52
When, where and on what did Flavescence Doreé first appear (recorded)?
1949, Armagnac on Baco 22A
53
How is Flavescence Doreé spread?
By leafhopper insects and propagation of infected vines.
54
What is Flavescence Doreé?
A phytoplasma disease that discolors leaves, causes pustules and cracks to form, and may kill young vines.
55
What does Fanleaf Degeneration do to the vine?
It deforms shoot growth, and leads to poor fruit set and seedless berries.
56
What is Fanleaf Degeneration?
A nepovirus spread by soil nematodes feeding on infected roots that severely curtails yields.
57
How is the Leafroll Virus spread?
Through propagation of infected vines or by an insect vector.
58
What do vines affected with Leafroll Virus look like in Autumn?
Shaded red and gold, with a downward curling of the leaves, experiencing reduced yields and delayed ripening.
59
What can Bacterial Blight be controlled by?
Hot water treatments and copper sprays (like Bordeaux mixture).
60
How much of the world's grape production losses is Leafroll Virus responsible for?
60%
61
What spreads Bacterial Blight?
Rain and compromised pruning tools
62
What causes Bacterial Blight?
The Xanthomonas ampelina bacterium
63
How is Crown Gall spread?
Through the propagation of bacteria-infected budwood.
64
In what type of climates does Crown Gall thrive?
Cooler climates
65
What is Crown Gall also known as?
Black Knot
66
What does Crown Gall do to a vine?
The vine develops tumors on its trunk, which girdle and essentially strangle the vine, withering or killing outright the portions of the vine above.
67
What causes Crown Gall?
The Agrobacterium tumefaciens bacterium.
68
What is the main method to limit the effects of Pierce's Disease?
Strict quarantines
69
Where is Pierce's Disease Common?
Southern US & Mexico
70
What is volcanic soil?
Soil derived from...
1) Rock material that has been ejected into the air and cooled before settling to the earth.
2) Lava from a volcano
71
What is Ultisol?
A highly weathered, largely infertile clay-based soil, usually brilliant in color, found in the American South
72
What is tufa?
A highly friable calcareous bedrock that breaks down into a fine crumb structure.
73
What is Terra Rossa?
A sedimentary soil formed after carbonates have been leached out of limestone. The breakdown leaves behind iron deposits which oxidize and turn rustic red. It drains well and is relatively high in nutrients.
74
What is Steige?
A schist-based soil found in the Andlau region of Alsace. In Kastelberg, the soil has metamorphosed with granite sand to form a hard, dark slate-like stone.
75
What is slate?
A metamorphic plate-like rock formed when shale, clay, or siltstone is subjected to pressure deep within the earth. The soil retains heat well and warms up relatively quickly.
76
What is silex?
A flint and sand-based soil type found primarily in the Loire Valley that is formed from a mixture of clay, limestone and silica.
77
What is silt?
A soil type consisting of fine grain deposits that offer good water retention but poor drainage. It is more fertile than sand.
78
What is Siliceous soil?
Soil composed of acid rock that is crystalline in nature. The soil has good heat retention but needs the added composition of silt, clay, and other sedimentary soils to have any kind of water retention.
79
What is shale?
Fine grain, sedimentary based soil that can turn into slate when under pressure. The soil is moderately fertile and retains heat well.
80
What is schist?
Laminated, crystalline rock based soil that retains heat well and is rich in magnesium and potassium, but is poor in organic nutrients and nitrogens.
81
What is sand?
Warm, airy soil that is composed of tiny particles of weathered rocks. One of the few soils that phylloxera doesn't thrive in. The soil drains well, but does not have good water retention. It's a sedimentary soil composed of sand particles that have been pressure bound by various iron-based minerals.
82
What is quartz?
A common material found in most vineyard soils. The high soil pH of quartz can reduce the acidity of the resulting wines, but its heat retaining property that stores and reflects heat can increase in wine of higher alcohol content.
83
What is perlite?
A volcanic soil that is light, powdery and lustrous with properties similar to diatomaceous earth.
84
What is Muschelkalk?
A soil type consisting of various compositions of sandstone, marl, dolomite and shingle, common in Alsace dating back from the Middle Triassic period.
85
What is Mica-Silicate?
Soil composed of fine, decomposed rock formations.
86
What is marl?
A calcareous clay based soil that adds acidity to the wine. Vines planted in this type of soil normally ripen later than in other soil types. It is typically deep and lacking in stone fragment. It is the main soil type in Piedmont.
87
What is loess?
A very fine, silt-based soil composed of windborne sediment that is typically angular and decalcified. The soil has good water retention and warming properties.
88
What is loam?
A warm, soft, fertile soil composed of roughly equal amounts of silt, sand and clay. It is typically too fertile for high quality wines.
89
What is Llicorella?
A soil in Priorat, which is a mix of slate and quartz that dates to the Paleozoic era. The soil is very porous and drains well.
90
What is limestone?
Sedimentary based soil consisting of carbonates. The most common colored limestone found in a wine-producing area is buff-gray in color. Home to high-acid grapes. It is the main soil type of the Zinnkoepflé region of Alsace.
91
What is lignite?
A soil type used as fertilizer in Germany and Champagne. It is a brown-colored carbonaceous soil that is intermediate between peat and coal.
92
What is Kimmeridgian soil?
A gray colored limestone-based soil originally identified in Kimmeridge, England. Kimmeridgian clay is calcareous clay containing Kimmeridgian limestone. This is the principle soil type of the Loire valley, Champagne and Burgundy regions.
93
What is Keuper?
A soil type consisting of marl and limestone, common in Alsace, dating to the Upper Triassic period.
94
What is hardpan?
A dense layer of clay or other material that is impermeable to water. In some areas of Bordeaux, a sandy iron-rich layer is located deep enough below the surface to act as a water table for the vine.
95
What is Greywacke?
Sedimentary soil formed by rivers depositing quartz, mudstone and feldspar. It is found in Germany, New Zealand and South Africa.
96
What is gravel?
Loose siliceous pebble soil that has good drainage but poor fertility. Vines planted in this type of soil must penetrate deeply to try to find nutrients in the subsoil.
97
What is granite?
Soil composed of 40-60% quartz, 30-40% Orthoclase, and various amounts of hornblende, mica, and other minerals. This soil warms quickly and retains heat well. The soil's high level of acidity works to minimize the acid levels in the grapes, which works well with acidic grapes like Gamay. It is the main soil type of the Brand Region of Alsace.
98
What is Galestro?
Schist-based soil found in the Tuscany region of Italy.
99
What is flint?
Siliceous stone that reflects and retains heat well. Pouilly-Fumé is known for flint.
100
What is Dolomite?
Calcium-magnesium carbonate soil.
101
What is clay?
Sedimentary rock based soil that has good water retention ability but poor drainage. The soil is often very cool and high in acidity.
102
What is chalk?
A very porous soft limestone soil that vine roots can easily penetrate. It provides good drainage and works best for grapes with high acidity levels.
103
What is calcareous soil?
Alkaline soil with high levels of calcium and Magnesium carbonate. Typically, it is soil that is cool in temperature that provides good water retention and drainage. They also have high limestone content that neutralizes natural acidity. The cooler temperatures can delay ripening of the grape.
104
What is Boulbènes?
A fine, siliceous soil that is easily compressed, and common in Entre-deux-Mers.
105
What is basalt?
Volcanic rock that is high in calcium, iron and magnesium. There is variable potassium and little to no quartz.
106
What is alluvial soil?
Highly fertile soil that has been transported by a river. It is prominent in Médoc and Marlborough.
107
What is Albariza?
A white, chalky looking soil in Andalucia formed by diatomaceous deposits, and has a high limestone content.
108
What may happen to the leaves during the hottest part of the day?
They may temporarily wilt.
109
The zone of active absorption is how long?
20 mm
110
What nutrients may be derived from rock weathering?
Macro?
Micro?
Macro: Phosphorus, Sulfur, Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, Chlorine
Micro: Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum
111
What elements may arrive via rain or dust particles?
Chlorine, Sodium, Magnesium, Calcium and Sulfur.
112
How does the vine get Carbon and oxygen?
In CO2 from the atmosphere and Oxygen from the water.
113
What are the micronutrients for vines?
Iron, Mangangese, Zinc, Copper, Boron, Molybdenum.
114
What are the macronutrients for vines?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, Chlorine.
115
You should pick botrytized white grapes when the pH reaches _______.
3.2
116
One should start harvest at a ______ Brix: TA ratio.
30:1
117
What are ions?
The charged forms of the elements that are released when compounds of the elements are dissolved in water.
118
How many elements must grapevines have in orders to normally flower and produce fruit?
16
119
Contour banks and terraces generally can be common, starting at _____% grade.
6%
120
Vineyard soil should have a pH of what?
5.5-7.5
121
The three general particles of soil are...
clay, silt and sand
122
What is humification?
The formation of humus through the process of organic residues being decomposed by microorganisms.
123
What is soil oxidation and reduction?
Weathering of Fe (Iron) containing minerals releases ferric and ferrous ions, which are in a reversible equilibrium depending on O2 availability. High O2 concentrations (aerobic conditions) favor Fe3+ compounds, particularly the oxides which are insoluble and orange-red. Low O2 concentrations favor Fe2+ compounds, which are more soluble and give a blue-gray color to the soil.
124
What is hydrolysis, specifically pertaining to vineyards?
The cleavage of chemical bonds by the addition of water. Water hydrolizes silicate materials by splitting into H+ ions (Hydrogen) and OH- ions (Hydroxide), with H+ ions attacking the minerals, and clay minerals are formed.
125
What are metamorphic rocks?
Igneous and sedimentary rocks subjected to heat and pressure that has changed the original rock structure and minerals.
126
What are sedimentary rocks?
Weathered rock material deposited under water or by wind and subsequently compressed.
127
What are igneous rocks?
Rocks derived from volcanic activity.
128
When does soil begin to form?
When a rock is first exposed to weather.
129
Wines are mostly in balance when ratio of Brix:TA is between ______ and _____.
30:1 & 35:1
130
What causes high pH?
- Overripe grapes
| - Too much potassium in soil.
131
High pH juice can lead to what issues?
Wine defects from spoilage organisms.
132
What is the optimum acid level at harvest for red grapes? For white grapes?
```
Reds= 0.6 to 0.8
Whites= 0.65 to 0.85
```
133
What is the primary acid of a grape?
Tartaric acid
134
The optimum brix for Vinifera is what?
22-24
135
If Brix is 25.3, the % potential alcohol is what?
15.0
136
If Brix is 20.9, the % potential alcohol is what?
11.9
137
1 degree Brix = 1 gram of _____ in _____ grams of solution.
Sucrose, 100
138
What is Brix?
The percentage of solutes by weight.
139
What are the 3 factors tracked for harvest to help grapes reach optimum levels?
sugar, acid, pH
140
What is also known as Balling?
Brix
141
If there is yellowing between veins and on margins, the vine is likely suffering from a deficiency of what?
potassium
142
If a grapevine is producing less than its normal amount, the vine may need more what?
Nitrogen
143
How are Japanese beetles detrimental to vines?
They reduce photosynthesis.
144
What is a good preventative and remedy for mites and scale insects?
Dormant oil spray
145
Where is the Four-Arm Kniffen often used?
U.S. East Coast
146
What are primary benefits to cluster thinning?
Reducing bunch rot by creating looser clusters.
147
When is the right time to cluster thin and why?
Early spring before the clusters' flowers open so you can properly improve growth.
148
Typically, buds on what part of the cane will shoot first?
Further out on the cane.
149
In what climates is pruning normally delayed until the buds start to swell?
Why?
In areas where late freezes occur.
To prevent damage from late freezes.
150
Crop is grown at the expense of what?
Vegetative growth
151
Cordons can be pruned to spurs of _____ to _____ buds, or canes of _____ to _____ buds.
2 to 5
10 to 12
152
In regions of high light intensity, which buds are fruitful that may otherwise not be?
1 to 3
153
On a typical French-American hybrid, which buds are the most fruitful?
6 to 12
154
What does a renewal spur provide?
Rise to a vigorous shoot that will be retained for the fruiting cane the next year.
155
Which buds are fruitful buds?
Buds formed on wood of the previous season's growth.
156
Pruning must be done before _____.
budbreak
157
When is the best time to prune?
When the buds start looking plump.
158
Why do new trunks constantly form?
In attempts to reduce problems that old vinifera has with virus, crown gall, and other grape diseases.
159
It is common to recommend having no trunk older than _____ years.
5
160
Which side of the wire should you tie vines?
Why?
The side facing the prevailing wind.
It helps reduce breakage of canes.
161
How should buds from older wood be used?
They should be removed.
162
Irrigation may be necessary if there is less than _____ inches of rain a year.
12
163
What are advantages of a stone mulch?
It keeps the weeds down, and the stones retain the heat of late summer and early fall days.
164
In what climate is mulching recommended?
Very hot, dry areas.
165
When are weeds and cover crops good? Why?
Near the end of July.
It helps the grapes slow down.
166
Why does a movable wire trellis have some use?
It can hang grape clusters in filtered sunlight in the open air underneath.
167
Are two-wire trellis wires higher in warmer or cooler areas?
cooler
168
One-wire trellis is best for what?
Raisins or table grape production
169
How long should a growing season be if you're using vertical cordon training?
300 days.
170
What is vertical cordon often used for?
Chardonnay (and sometimes Cabernet Sauvignon).
171
What 3 grapes are likely to be supported by goblets?
Petite Sirah, Zinfandel, Carignane.
172
Where are head-trained vines mostly found?
northern California
173
Why is it not a good idea to plant a vineyard near a forest?
The cool, humid air promotes fungus and disease attacks, and insects can be a problem.
174
When is trenching or handwork done?
In the autumn before the spring in which you'll plant.
175
What can adding sand do to clay soil?
Open up larger pore spaces.
176
Why isn't subsoiling as deep on slopes?
Slopes are assured better water drainage.
177
Preparing soil for grapes may ultimately mean to do what?
Loosen, break up and mix soil layers well below ordinary cultivation depth.
178
What is a strength of Dogridge rootstock?
Ability to growwell and support good grafts of vinifera and hybrids.
179
What is Riparia rootstock good for?
holding down vigor.
180
When does replant status become important?
If you want to plant where grapes have grown within the past 3 years.
181
What does soil depth mean?
soil's ability to drain water
182
What are hardpans?
compacted, impervious layers of soil that act like cement.
183
Soils for vines should have a depth of at least ______.
30 inches
184
What advantage does a soil that is dark because of dark rocks have?
Advantage of extra heat-holding capacity.
185
What does Pierce's Disease do to vines?
Render them incapable of producing cholorophyll and killing it within 1-5 years.
186
What is a glassy-winged sharpshooter?
A leafhopping insect found near citrus orchards and oleander plants.
187
What causes Pierce's Disease?
What transmits it?
The bacteria Xylella fastidiosa.
The glassy-winged sharpshooter.
188
Botrytis requires what in order to germinate?
Warm weather and at least 90% humidity.
189
What is bunch rot?
A grouping of similar diseases caused by a number of fungi species.
190
What's the best way to control Black Rot?
fungicide sprays
191
How does Black Rot initially look on a vine?
As black spots on the vine's shoots, leaves and berries.
192
What causes Black Rot?
The Guignardia bidwelli fungus
193
How did black rot spread to Europe?
With the importation of phylloxera-resistant rootstocks in the late 1800s.
194
Where is Black Rot native to?
North America
195
Esca-infected vines rarely live past what?
30 years of age
196
What can Esca do to older vines?
It affects the wood, causing the interior of the trunk and arms to soften and rot from the inside.
197
What does Esca do to young vines?
Weaken growth, affect berry development and discolor leaves. Death may occur in hot weather.
198
Where does Esca thrive?
warmer climates
199
What is Esca also known as?
What kind of disease is it?
Black measles
Fungal
200
What do vines infected with Eutypa Dieback experience?
Stunted shoot growth, as the fungus releases toxins, and potentially causes the death of a cane.
201
What does Eutypa Dieback primarily affect?
yield
202
How does Eutypa Dieback enter the vine?
carried by rain, entering the vine through pruning wounds.
203
What causes Eutypa Dieback?
The Eutypa lata fungus
204
What is Eutypa Dieback also known as?
Dead Arm
205
What is Bordeaux Mixture?
A blue-staining spray of copper sulfate, water and lime, developed in 1885 to prevent outbreaks of downy mildew.
206
What does downy mildew cause?
Dropping of vine leaves, which limits the vine's ability to photosynthesize.
207
What is the agent of downy mildew?
Plasmopara viticola
208
What can mealy bugs of the genera Planococcus and Pseudococcus spread?
Leafroll virus
209
What are some indirect effects of mealybug's sap sucking?
They produce a lot of "honeydew" which collects over the bunches and foliage, and on which fungus grows, often giving it a sooty appearance.
210
When and where was the first vine mealy bug indentified?
California's Coachella Valley in the early 1990s
211
Mealy bugs prefer a _____ environment.
humid
212
When do mealy bugs become mature and reproduce?
early summer
213
Which mealy bug can feed on roots?
Planococcus ficus
214
What are mealy bugs and what do they do?
Small white insects of the family Cicadellidae which suck vine sap, infect new growth in the spring, typically at the undersurface of the leaves.
215
What are phytoplasmas?
Pathogens similar to bacteria, yet symptomatically similar to viral diseases.
216
How are viral diseases spread in the vineyard.
Through grafting or from transmission from insects.
217
What climates are fungal diseases typically associated with?
warm and damp climates
218
How do fungal diseases manifest?
As mildew or mold
219
What are the 4 categories of diseases that affect the vine?
Fungal, viral, bacterial, phytoplasma.
220
What is powdery mildew?
aka oidium
A fungal disease native to North America, spread to France & noticed in 1847. Green parts of the vine are attacked, and a cobweb like growth spreads. Ash-like spores soon show up on short, upright stalks.
221
How are powdery mildew spores spread?
by wind
222
What happens in vines from dormancy to budbreak if powdery mildew is present?
The fungus survives over winter inside buds or on surface. Fruit set can be reduced and ripening delayed.
223
What happens to grapes infected with powdery mildew?
They lose fruity aromas, and are replaced by moldy, wet fur, and earthy characters.
224
In what kind of weather does powdery mildew best spread?
Warm weather = 68-80 degrees F
225
What is a common way to control powdery mildew?
Sulfur dust or wettable powders
226
What is noble rot known as in Germany? In Italy?
Edelfaule, Muffa
227
Why is later day dry weather vital to good wine, with regards to noble rot?
If there is unrelenting heat and dryness, then the fungus will not actually develop, and grapes will accumulate sugar, rather than undergoing the chemical transformations associated with noble rot. But the medium of warm, sunny, dry days after the moisture will create the idea growing conditions.
228
What is the color transformation of grapes infected with the noble rot?
Golden -> pink or purple -> brown
229
How does botrytis affect these 3 factors of a grape?...
Sugar
Tartaric Acid
Malic Acid
Sugar - Decrease by 1/3
Tartaric Acid - Decrease by 5/6
Malic Acid - Decrease by 1/3
230
What does botrytis form in a grape?
Glycerol, acetic acid, gluconic acid, laccase, pectinase, other enzymes, botyticine (a yeast-inhibiting glycoprotein).
231
What is glycerol?
A polyol and minor product of fermentation, usually present from 5-12 grams/liter, but in botrytized wines up to 25 g/l.
232
What can keep grey rot at bay if the weather is cold?
Wind, by dehydrating the grapes and concentrating the sugars.
233
What are examples of agrochemicals?
fungicides, insecticides, herbicides, bird repellents, plant growth regulators, rodenticides, soil fumigants
234
A common feature of vineyards with a reputation for producing high-quality wines is that they are of _____ vigor, and that the canopy microclimate is characterized by _____ and _____ shade.
- moderate to low
- good exposure of leaves and fruit to the sun
- little
235
What does trimming do?
Cuts off excessive shoot growth in the summer.
236
What does thinning do?
Removes unwanted shoots early in the season.
237
What does leaf removal do?
Allows for more fruit exposure to sun and wind.
238
What does shoot positioning do?
Makes trimming and leaf removal easy and effective.
239
What is the canopy?
The part of the grapevine visible above ground.
240
Generally, what are characteristics of soil desired for wine-growing grapes?
Well-drained, easily penetrable, good water retention.
241
High soil pH contributes how to acidity in grapes?
higher acidity (low pH)
242
Most of the world's vineyards are grafted to what?
To American rootstock
243
When did Phylloxera ravage most of the world's vineyards?
From 1863 until about 1889.
244
What is phylloxera?
A louse that feeds on the roots and leaves of grapevines.
245
Which wine species were mostly used to hybridize vinifera in order to combat phylloxera?
Aestivalis, rupestris, riparia
246
Besides influence on phylloxera, what are other factors to consider when selecting rootstock?
Ability to withstand diseases and drought, tolerance to salt and lime, effect on vine vigor.
247
What year of a vine will typically be the first harvest year?
third
248
Grapevines tend to mature/stabilize in what year?
6th
249
What might Australians refer to Gobelet system vines as?
bush vines
250
Where is the Gobelet system common?
Southern Rhone and Southern Italy
251
If a vine is spur-pruned, what happens with the canes?
The upper cane will be removed during winter pruning, and the lower cane will be cut back to two buds.
252
What happens with the buds on the cane?
They will each produce a shoot during budbreak.
253
What happens to a green shoot after a season?
It becomes a woody cane.
254
What is gobelet known as in...
Italy?
Spain?
Portugal?
Italy - Alberelli a vaso
Spain - En vaso
Portugal - En taca
255
What is the Gobelet system?
Spurs are arranged on short arms in an approximate circle. The vines are free standing and this is the best used in low vigor vineyards in dry climates.
256
What is the Guyot system?
Pruning that leaves 6 to 10 bud canes and for each a single 2-bud spur at the base. Double guyot has two canes and two spurs.
257
Which is better for vigorous vineyards: spur pruning or cane pruning?
cane pruning
258
What is spur pruning?
A form of winter pruning where canes are cut back to two bud spurs. It is quicker than cane pruning.
259
What is cane pruning?
A winter pruning in which the buds are retained on longer canes, typically including 6-15 buds.
260
Which kind of vines require a trellising system?
head-trained vines
261
What is the difference between head-trained and Cordon trained?
Cordon trained vines have at least one permanent cane extending from the trunk. Head-trained vines don't.
262
What are the two main vine training classifications?
head trained or cordon trained
263
In vine training and pruning, what must one prevent the canes from doing, and why?
From touching the ground so it doesn't establish new roots.
264
At what age do many commercial vineyards tend to decline?
20 years
265
What is cordon de Royat?
Vine training, with a single spur-pruned permanent cordon extending horizontally from the trunk, rather than a 2-year-old cane. The vines are normally spur pruned to two bud spurs.
266
what is VSP?
Vertical Shoot Positioning, where the canes are trellised upwards.
267
How far apart are the average rows of GDC vines?
3m/10ft
268
Who developed the GDC? When?
Professor Nelson Shaulis of Geneva Experiment Station in the early 1960s.
269
What is Geneva Double Curtain?
A vine-training system where the canopy is divided into two pendent curtains, trained downwards from high cordons or canes.
270
What is the tendone system?
What are the pitfalls of the system?
An overhead training system. Trunks are usually about 6 1/2 ft high, and wooden frames and cross wires support the poles.
High labor cost, dense canopy increases powdery mildew risk.
271
In the 1960s, who showed that increased fruit and leaf exposure to sunlight improves both yield and grape composition and wine quality?
Professor Nelson Shaulis of Cornell University
272
What early figure is known to prefer vines on hillsides?
Bacchus
273
What is the purpose of canopy management?
To adjust the microclimate of a vine.
274
What is a microclimate?
The climate in and around a vine canopy.
275
What is aspect?
Degree and direction of a vine's slope
276
What is a mesoclimate?
The climate of a particular vineyard.
277
What technology may be employed in battling frost?
Wine machines
278
How much annual rainfall does a vine require?
20-30 inches
279
what does cloud cover do to light and heat?
It doesn't really impact transmission of light for photosynthesis, but it will affect the heat on a vine.
280
The minimum amount of sunshine required to support viticulture is about what?
1,300 hours.
281
What happens during photosynthesis?
Plants convert carbon dioxide into organic compounds, including sugars.
282
Why does the CHSI work better in California?
Temperatures in California are more closely correlated with other climatic factors.
283
Why is the CHSI cut off at 50 degrees F?
It is based on the hypothesis that grapevines do not grow if the temperature is below 50 degrees F.
284
Who created the CHSI?
Where?
When?
AJ Winkler and Maynard Amerine, UC Davis, 1944.
285
What is the range for CHSI Region V?
More than 4,000 degree days F.
286
What is the range for CHSI Region IV?
3,500 - 4,000 degree days F.
287
What is the range for CHSI Region III?
3,000 - 3,500 degree days F.
288
What is the range for CHSI Region II?
2,500 - 3,000 degree days F.
289
What is the range for CHSI Region I?
Less than 2,500 degree days F.
290
How is the California Heat Summation Index calculated?
Days in growing season (April 1 - Oct 31 OR Oct 1 - April 30)
multiplied by
Mean number of degrees over 50 degrees F for that month.
Each month totals are added together.
291
What is the direct method of classifying climates solely on temperature?
California Heat Summation Index
292
To successfully ripen, red grapes require what average summer temperature? How about white grapes?
Red - 70
| White - 66
293
The vine prefers a mean annual temperature level of what?
Between 50-68F, with ideal temperature at 57F.
294
What is grey rot?
Botrytised grapes from relentless moisture. Never good.
295
What is pH?
Measure of the activity of the hydrogen ion.
296
What is the BBCH scale?
Biological scale that describes the grapes phenological development.
297
The annual life cycle of the vine begins with what?
budbreak
298
Generally, at what temperatures do vines emerge from dormancy?
50F
299
When does budbreak normally occur in the Northern Hemisphere?
March
300
What are embryo bunches?
Small green clusters that form on the shoots by mid-April.
301
How long after budbreak does flowering occur?
6-13 weeks
302
The process of fertilization after flowering leads to what?
fruit set
303
What is the average fruit set in percentage from the embryo berries?
30%
304
When do the berries typically stop enlarging?
August
305
What happens at veraison?
Sugars move from leaf system to the fruit.
306
What is cane ripening?
aka - aoutement
The stage in the development of the shoot when the stem matures, and changes from green to yellow, and ultimately brown. Periderm tissue is added, and carbohydrate reserves are added. This occurs about the same time as veraison.
307
When is fertilization applied?
In the fall after harvest.
308
What is seed lignification?
When the seed becomes woody through the formation and deposit of lignin in cell walls.
309
What are the stages of a vine's life cycle?
```
Bud Break
Flowering
Fruit Set
Veraison
Harvest
```
310
What is in a vine bleed?
water, organic acids, hormones, minerals, and sugars.
311
When does a vine bleed happen?
The start of bud break.
312
How/why does a vine bleed?
Through the wounds left over from pruning the vine.
313
Where are vine buds?
Between the stem and petiole (leaf stem).
314
What is inside a vine bud?
Three primordial shoots
315
What starts when shoots sprout tiny leaves?
photsynthesis
316
In warm climates, shoots can grow as much as _____ per day.
3 cm
317
Budbreaks are most uniform after what kind of winter?
A cold winter without winter freeze.
318
What disease can develop on vines injured by winter freeze?
crown gall
319
How does a vine survive better in a cold winter?
Storing up carb reserves at the end of the growing season.
320
What does late pruning do to budbreaks? What is a benefit of this?
It delays budbreak.
This can reduce the risk of winter frost.
321
When there is minimal pruning, which buds preferentially burst?
Why?
Buds near the ends of canes.
This helps vines climb trees and seek sunlight in a forest habitat.
322
What is the calyptra?
fused cap of petals
323
What happens to the calyptra during flowering?
It is shed
324
What happens to ovules during flowering?
They are fertilized.
325
What makes a vine hermaphroditic?
Possessing male stamens and female ovaries.
326
What is an anther?
The part of the stamen that releases pollen.
327
What happens in cross-pollenation?
Pollen from another vine fertilizes the ovary on a vine, which produces seeds as the flower begins transformation into a grape berry.
328
When does fruit set normally take place in the Northern Hemisphere?
May
329
What is the average of fertilized flowers on the vine?
30
330
What is couloure?
Viticultural hazard that is the result of metabolic reactions to weather conditions that cause a failure of grapes to develop after flowering.
331
When does couloure usually happen?
spring
332
What are some grape varieties with high proclivity to couloure?
Grenache, Malbec, Merlot, Muscat Ottonel
333
What is a vine doing when couloure happens?
Conserving carbohydratic resources due to scarcity.
334
What is millerandage?
When grape bunches vary greatly in size. Berries with no seeds to protect will be smaller.
335
What grapes are prone to millerandage?
Gewurztraminer, Chardonnay clones 1A and Mendoza
336
What is fruit set known as?
Nouaison
337
Most wine grape varieties contain up to _____ seeds.
4
338
What is shatter?
Flowers that do not set, but instead fall from the bunch.
339
What does parthenocarpic mean?
seedless
340
Where in the grape are the anthocyanins located?
skins
341
What is the average weight of a "premium" wine grape?
What's a normal weight?
1 to 2 grams
3 to 10 grams
342
Berries are about ____% of their final size when they enter veraison.
50
343
In veraison, the chlorophyll is being replaced by what, in the skins?
Anthocyanins in red grapes, carotenoids in white grapes.
344
What are anthocyanins?
Water-soluble vacuolar pigments. They are also flavonoids.
345
What are carotenoids?
Organic pigments in cholorplasts and chromoplasts of plants.
346
What is engustment?
The softening of berries as they build up sugars and ripen.
347
What accumulates in the first week of veraison?
Glucose and Fructose
348
Which berries typically undergo veraison first?
The berries/clusters most exposed to warmth.
349
Limited water stress can _____ verasion.
encourage
350
What happens to the leaves after harvest, right before dormancy?
They turn from green to yellow
351
Where are carbohydrate reserves stored?
In the roots and trunks.
352
What are the 4 types of days on a biodynamic calendar?
Fruit, flower, leaf and root.
353
Which tends to harvest later, organic or non-organic vineyards?
Non-organic
354
How much on average are yields lower in organic vineyards?
20%
355
When is herbicide/pesticide usage stopped? Why?
Several weeks before harvest, so that the grapes are not contaminated.
356
How do mechanical harvesters commonly harvest grapes?
By sharply shaking vines in different directions.
357
What happens to seed color in phenolic ripeness?
Seeds should change from green to brown.
358
What happens in the grape when Brix reaches 25-26?
Synthesis stops, but sugar concentration continues to increase as the result of desiccation.
359
What is the math applied to determine potential alcohol from Brix?
Multiply Brix by 0.55
360
What is the general range of yield for quality grapes? For bulk grapes?
35-80 hectolitres/hectare
100-150 hectolitres/hectare
361
For how long and under what temperature do vines need dormancy?
1-2 months, under 10 degrees C or 50 degrees F
362
At what temperature does photosynthesis stop?
40 degrees C or 104 degrees F
363
Why may roses be planted at ends of vine rows?
To give early warnings of pests and diseases.
364
What is selection massale?
A breeding method wherein a large number of plants having the desirable traits are harvested individually from a standing crop.
365
What is ampelography?
The field of botany concerned with identification and classification of grapevines.
366
Vitis berlandieri rootstock is now often used on what soil?
chalk
367
Vitis rupestris rootstock is often used on what kind of soil?
calcareous
368
Vitis riparia rootstock is often used on what kind of soil?
clay
369
When and where in Europe did phylloxera infection start?
1862, at Roquemaure on Rhone's right bank, just N of Avignon.
370
What is the typical damage process from phylloxera influence?
When damage reduces the pressure of sap below a critical level, phylloxera leave the vine and migrate to a fresh one. But the damaged sites provide entry points for other injections, such as fungal pathogens.
371
What is phylloxera's original name? What does it mean?
Phylloxera vastatrix
Phylloxera the destroyer
372
How big is phylloxera?
1-3 mm long
373
When did the first documented mentioning of Pinot Noir occur?
1375
374
Where and how were the most ancient traces of vines found?
From the Hajii Firuz Neolithic complex in the northern Zagros Mountains of Iran - from pottery dating back to around 5400 BC - contained traces of tartaric acid.
375
How many species are in the Vitis genus?
About 60
376
What is translocation?
Movement of sugars, nutrients and water from one part of the grape vine to another part.
377
What is a tenuta?
A farm or wine estate.
378
What is szamorodni?
wine grapes not sorted by their degree of botrytis.
379
What is remontage?
Pumping over, also to repair a vineyard after a heavy and erosive rain storm.
380
What is a recoltant?
Someone who harvests their own grapes.
381
What is passerillee?
Grapes that have begun to shrivel on the vine.
382
What is lutte raisonee?
Type of viticulture that tries to avoid synthetic farming, more sustainable than organic.
383
What is integrieter pflanzenschutz?
Type of viticulture that treats the ground and planet as humanly as possible.
384
How big is a hectoliter, compared to gallons and liters?
26.418 gallons or 100 liters
385
How big is a hectare compared to an acre?
2.471 acres
386
What is hauptlese?
Main harvest
387
What is gerbstoft?
tannin
388
What is foulage?
crushing, treading
389
What is flureinigung?
Remodelling of vineyards to make them easier to harvest, this reduced the overall number of vineyards
390
What is flachbogen?
guyot trellis system
391
What is eraflage?
destalking or destemming
392
What is einzelpfahlerziehung?
A vine trained to an individual stake...this is used on very steep slopes.
393
What is egrappage?
destemming
394
What is effeuillage?
leaf thinning of the canopy
395
What is casca?
Leftover grapes skins and seeds
396
What is bentonite?
An aluminosilicate clay that swells in water and has powerful properties of absportion
397
What is a bench graft?
grafting done in a nursery
398
What is aspersion?
Spraying the buds or grapes with water to protect against late frosts or freezes. The water turns to ice which protects the buds from colder temperatures.
399
What is accolage?
The process of tying the vine branches to the trellis frame.
400
A half ton of red grapes yields how many gallons?
75-80 gallons, or 284-303 liters.
