BioChem Block 4 Flashcards
1
Q
ATP can be used do work such as what 4 things?
A
Contract muscles
Synthesize large molecules
Nerve impulses
Move substances across cell mem.
2
Q
Define metabolism
A
All chemical reactions that provide energy and substances required for continued cell growth
3
Q
What are the two metabolism reactions?
A
Catabolic- breaking down
Anabolic- build
4
Q
What are the 3 stages of digestion?
A
1- digestion/hydrolysis
2- degradation/small oxidation
3- release of energy to synthesize ATP
5
Q
What events occur in stage 1 of Digestion?
A
Polysaccharieds->mono
Fats->glycerol and FAs
Proteins-> aa
6
Q
How does catabolism begin?
A
Digestion
7
Q
As long as cell shave oxygen, ? and ? can be reoxidized via ?
A
NADH
FADH2
ETC
8
Q
What are the 3 parts of ATP?
A
Adenine
Ribose sugar
3 phosphate groups
9
Q
Hydrolysis of ATP can provide _ k/cal/kj
A
7.3 kcal
31kJ
10
Q
Hydrolysis of ATP is an ___ reaction on an energy curve
A
Exothermic
11
Q
What is the first step in breaking down glucose?
What does this require?
A
Adding phosphate
Requires 3.3kcal/14kj
12
Q
ATP= ? + ? + ?
A
ADP + Pi + 7.3
13
Q
G6P= ? + ? + ?
A
Glucose + Pi + 3.3
14
Q
Overall ATP + glucose= ?
A
ADP + G6P + 4.0
15
Q
Define Oxidation
A
Gain of O
Loss of H/e-/energy
16
Q
Define Reduction
A
Gain of H/e-/energy
Loss of O
17
Q
What does NAD stand for?
A
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
18
Q
What are the 3 parts of NAD?
A
Nicotinamide group
Ribose sugar
ADP
19
Q
Oxidized form of NAD undergoes reduction when?
A
C atom in Nicotinamide reacts w/ 2 H, leaving one H
20
Q
What kind of reactions is NAD required for?
A
Dehydrogenation that produce C=O
21
Q
Give an example of a reaction that NAD would be a part of?
A
Oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes/ketones
Oxidation of ethanol to ethanal in liver w/ reduction of NAD to NADH + H
22
Q
What does NADP stand for?
A
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
23
Q
What kind of reactions is NADP used for?
A
Anabolic reactions, lipid/nucleic acid synthesis
24
Q
NADP and NAD are similar except
A
2’ OH group replaced w/ phosphate group
25
What is the reduced form of NADP?
NADPH
26
What does FAD stand for?
Flavin adenine dinucleotide
27
What are the 2 parts of FAD?
ADP
| Riboflavin
28
What are the 2 parts of riboflavin?
(Vit B2)
Ribitol- sugar alcohol
Flavin
29
What happens when FAD is reduced?
2 N atoms from flavin react w/ 2 H atoms
| Fad-> FADH2
30
What kind of reactions is FAD used for?
Dehydrogenation
| C-C -> C=C
31
What is an example of a reaction that would require FAD?
In CAC, conversion of succinates C-C -> C=C in fumarate w/ FAD->FADH2
32
What are the 3 parts of Coenzyme A?
Pantothenic Acid (B5)
Phosphorylated ADP
Aminoethanethiol
33
What is the function of CoA?
Prepare acyl groups for reactions w/ enzymes
34
Where/what is the reactive feature of CoA?
Thiol group -SH
35
What form ACoA?
Acetyl group + CoA
36
To digest carbs, enzymes in salivary glands hydrolyze what bonds?
a-glycosidic in amylose and amylopectin
| Produces: maltose, glucose, dextrins
37
Define dextrins
Small polysaccharides 6-8 glucose in length
38
What happens to carbohydrate digestion in the stomach?
Stops due to pH
39
Glucose + glucose
Glucose + galactose
Glucose + fructose
Maltose
Lactose
Sucrose
40
Enzymes in pancreas continue carb digestion how?
Hydrolyze dextrins-> maltose and glucose
41
Enzymes produces in intestinal mucus lining can hydrolyze which disaccharides?
Maltose
Lactose
Sucrose
42
What 2 sugars does the liver use to make glucose?
Hexoses fructose and galactose
43
Glucose is primary energy source for ? 3 things
Muscle contractions
RBCs
Brain
44
Where is glycogen stored?
Liver
| Skeletal muscle
45
Glucose is degraded through what pathway?
Glycolysis- anaerobic path
46
Where does glycolysis occur?
Cytosol
47
First 5 steps of glycolysis are called?
| Last 5 steps are called?
Energy investment
| Energy generating
48
What are the 10 reactions of glycolysis
```
Phosphorylation
Isomerization
Phosphorylation
Cleavage
Isomerization
Oxidation/Phosphorylation
Phosphate transfer
Isomerization
Dehydration
Phosphate transfer
```
49
Overall, what is the net gain from glycolysis?
2 ATP
| 2 NADH when glucose is converted to two pyruvate
50
How/where does galactose enter glycolysis?
Galactose->ATP->G1P->G6P at Reaction 2
51
How does fructose from muscles enter glycolysis?
| How does fructose from the liver enter glycolysis?
F6P-> Reaction 3
| Fructose->F1P-> Glyceraldehyde 3 Phosphate, Reaction 6
52
Where/how is glycolysis regulated?
1- Hexokinase, inhib by high G6P
3- PFK-1, inhib by high ATP, stim by high AM/DP
10- pyruvate kinase, inhib by high ATP or ACoA
53
What is it called when the first enzyme of a pathway is inhibited?
Feedback control, type of enzymatic regulation
54
What/where are the allosteric enzymes of glycolysis?
3- PFK 1
| 10- pyruvate kinase
55
What is the purpose of the PPP?
Alternative route to oxidize glucose for anabolic purposes
56
What does the PPP produce?
NADPH
| 5C pentoses
57
NADP is used for biosynthesis of ? 3 things where?
Nucleic acids
Cholesterol
FAs
In liver and adipose cells
58
How is PPP started?
G6P converted to ribulose-5-phosphate
| Reqs two NADP
59
What is the second step of the PPP?
R5P isomerized by PPP isomerase to ribose-5-phosphate
60
What is the final step of the PPP?
Three R5P to two hexose molecules and one triose to participate in glycolysis
61
Under aerobic conditions, oxygen will convert pyruvate into ?
What about under anaerobic conditions?
ACoA, CO2
| Lactate
62
What do yeast cells reduce pyruvate into?
Ethanol
| CO2
63
How many ATP are generated in glycolysis when glucose is converted into two pyruvate?
2 ATP
64
Where does pyruvate move to during aerobic conditions?
Move from cytosol into mitochondria
65
Aerobic conditions produce what products from pyruvate?
CO2
NAD reduced
Acetyl CoA
66
What happens to pyruvate during anaerobic conditions?
Remains in cytosol, reduced to lactate
| NAD oxidized G3P to produce ATP
67
After exercise and O2 debt is repaid, what happens to lactate?
Transported to liver, converted to pyruvate
68
Bacteria converting pyruvate to lactate is seen in what examples?
Pickling
69
What type of conditions do yeast convert sugars to ethanol?
Fermentation, anaerobic conditions
70
3 steps of fermentation
Pyruvate formed from glycolysis
CO2 removed
NAD regenerated from ethanal reducing to ethanol
71
Glycogen is a polymer of glucose with what types of bonds?
a1-4 in chain
| a1-6 on branches
72
When glycogen stores are full, what happens to any remaining glucose?
Converted to triacylglycerols and stored as fat
73
Define glycogenesis
Converting glucose to glycogen
74
What product of glycolysis can also be stored as glycogen?
G6P
75
What are the 3 Reactions of Glycogenesis?
Isomerization
Activation
Synthesis
76
What happens in Reaction 1 of Glycogenesis?
G6P->G1p by phosphoglucomutase
77
What happens in Reaction 2 of Glycogenesis?
UDP added to glucose by pyrophosphorylase
78
What happens in Reaction 3 of Glycogenesis?
UDP-glucose broken by Glycogen Synthase
| Glucose added to glycogen chain
79
Define Glycogenolysis
Glycogen conversion to glucose
80
What are the 4 Reactions of Glycogenolysis?
Phosphorylation
Hydrolysis
Isomerization
Dephosphorylation
81
What does insulin do to regulate glycogen metabolism?
Inc glycogen synthesis
| Inc oxidation reactions (glycolysis)
82
What does glucagon do to regulate glycogen metabolism?
Increases glycogenolysis
| Inhibits synthesis of glycogen
83
What converts glycogen phosphorylase from inactive to active?
Epinephrine
84
G1P and G6P can both be seen as intermediates of what 2 processes?
Glycogenesis
| Glycogenolysis
85
UDP-glucose is only involved with which process?
Glycogenesis
86
With plentiful O2, pyruvate from glycolysis is converted to _____ , catalyzed by _____
ACoA
| Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
87
CAC connects what two things?
ACoA from stage 2 to ETC in stage 3
88
CAC uses ___ to produce CO2 and reduce ___ and ___
ACoA
FADH2
NAD
89
Each turn of the CAC includes ___ oxidation reactions
4
90
In 4 oxidation reactions from one turn of CAC, what is produced?
3 NADH
1 FADH2
1 ATP
91
What 3 things inhibit CAC?
| What stims CAC?
ATP, NADH, Citrate
| ADP
92
What 3 CAC enzymes respond to both allosteric regulation and feedback inhibition?
Citrate Synthase #1- +ADP, -ATP, NADH, citrate
Isocitrate Dehydrogenase#3- -ATP, NADH, +ADP
a-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase #4- - NADH, succinyl CoA, + ADP
93
PTs w/ diseases of their CAC will show what S/Sx?
Neurological problems
| Excrete high amounts of CAC compounds in urine
94
For each molecule of glucose that completes glycolysis, the oxidation of two pyruvate and CAC, what is created?
4 ATP
10 NADH
2 FADH2
95
Glycolysis = _ATP _ NADH
2 Pyruvate Oxid= _ATP _NADH
CAC w/ 2 ACoA= _ATP _NADH
2 2
0 2
2 6 2 FADH2
96
Each step of the ETC is an individual ?
Oxidation-reduction reaction
97
Define Oxidative Phosphorylation
Energy from ETC used to synthesize ADP + Pi-> ATP
98
ETC and oxidative phosphorylation will continue as long as __ is present
O
99
Which protein complexes extend through inner mitochondrial membrane?
1 3 4
One end- matrix
Other end- intermembrane space
100
What are the two e- carriers of the ETC?
CoQ
| Cytochrome C
101
Define Chemiosmotic Model
Links energy from ETC to H ion gradient to drive ATP synthesis
102
Moving H from matrix to intermembrane space lowers the pH in the ____ and creates a ______
intermembrane
H gradient
electrochemical gradient
103
NADH enters ETC @ complex _
FADH2 enters ETC @ complex _
What does this cause?
1
| 2- doesn't connect outside of the matrix, FADH2 generates less energy
104
Total ATP for complete oxidation of glucose under aerobic conditions can be calculated by combining what numbers?
Glycolysis- 7
Oxidation of pyruvate- 5
CAC- 20
ETC
105
Where does the malate-aspartate shuttle operate?
Heart
| Liver
106
2 ACoA= __ CO2 + _ATP from two turns of CAC
4 CO2
| 20 ATP
107
Grand summary of TOTAL ATP produced from oxidation of one glucose?
32
108
What are the two main components of a cell membrane?
Glycerophospholipids
| Sphingolipids
109
What are the 2 parts of a phospholipid?
Non-polar/hydrocarbon tail w/ 2 long chain FA
| Polar region of phosphate and ionized amino alcohol
110
Why don't phospholipids fit closely together in the bilayer?
Most are unsat FA, kinks in C chains @ cis-double bonds
111
Define Fluid Mosaic Model
Lipid bilayer is not rigid, but dynamic and fluid like
112
Where do peripheral proteins show up in the bilayer?
Just one surface
113
Where do integral show up in the bilayer?
Extend through whole bilayer
114
Carbohydrates that emerge from cell membrane perform what 2 functions?
Cell recognition
| Cell communication- hormones/neurotransmitters
115
Cholesterols majority presence but large and rigid nature causes what to a cell membrane?
Reduces flexibility
Adds strength to membrane
Prevents crystalization
116
________ membranes separate aqueous solutions
Nonpolar
117
Main function of cellular membrane?
Allow movement/transport of ion/molecules from one side to another
118
What are the 2 general types of transport across a membrane?
Passive- high->low concentration (facilitated diffusion, diffusion)
Active- low->high concentration, reqs energy
119
What is the simplest transport mechanism?
Diffusion
120
Protein channels allow facilitated diffusion of what things?
Cl
BiCarb
Glucose
121
3 examples of ions that move across a cell membrane AGAINST their gradient?
How do these ions move?
K
Na
Ca
Active transport
122
Initial digestion of dietary triacylglycerols starts where?
| What catalyzes this initiation?
Small intestine
| Catalyzed by lipases
123
How is the process of fat storage stimulated?
Glucagon
| Epinephrine
124
What happens when epinephrine binds to adipose tissue?
Hormone sensitive lipase catalyzes triacylglycerol hydrolysis to glycerol and FAs
125
What happens to glycerol and FAs when they're hydrolysis is complete and they pass into the bloodstream?
Bind with proteins (albumin) for transport
126
Most of glycerol released (dietary or storage) is metabolized where and converting it to what?
Liver
| To Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
127
What are the two steps of converting glycerol to dihydroxyacetone phosphate?
ATP phosphorylates glycerol to G3P
| 2nd hydroxyl group is oxidized to dihydroxyacetone phosphate
128
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is an intermediate of many metabolic pathways including?
Glycolysis
| Gluconeogenesis
129
Define B-oxidation?
Removal of 2C segments, one at a time, from carboxyl end of a FA
130
Each cycle of B-oxidation produces what 2 things?
ACoA
| FA -2Cs
131
B-oxidation cycles will repeat until the original FA is degraded to ?
2C ACoA
132
Where are FAs produced?
Cytosol
133
How do FAs get to the mitochondira for B-oxidation?
Carnitine shuttle
134
What are the 3 types of ketones?
Acetoacetate
3 hydroxybutyrate
Acetone
135
What determines the number of B-oxidation cycle repeats?
FA length
| 10C= 5 ACoa, so 4 cycle repeats
136
What happens if an odd-numbers FA goes through B-oxidation?
Same as even until final cycle
| Remaining FACoA cleaved, yields Propionyl CoA and ACoA
137
What has to happen to Unsat FA before they can undergo B-oxidation?
What does the effect though?
Cis->trans between a-b carbon
| No FADH2 produces, decrease total FADH2 yield by 1/double bond
138
Each cycle of B-oxidation requires how much ATP?
| What does each cycle produce?
2 per cycle
1 NADH- 2.5 ATP
1 FADH2- 1.5 ATP
1 ACoA
Coezymes can be oxidized through ETC to synthesize 4 ATP
139
How much ATP can be synthesized from the CAC from one ACoA entering the cylce
1 ACoA releases enough energy to synthesize 10 ATP
140
What happens to excess ACoA that doesn't/can't enter the CAC?
Go to ketogenesis
141
What are the 4 Reactions of Ketogenesis
Condensation
Hydrolysis
Hydrogenation (reduction)
Decarboxylation
142
What can stimulate/trigger ketosis?
Low carb/high fat diet
Fasting
Vigorous exercise
Diabetes
143
What can happen to 3-hydroxybutyrate and Acetoacetate if they're not used for Ketosis?
Converted back to ACoA and used in CAC
144
Difference between FA oxidation and FA synthesis?
Oxid- in mitochondria, uses FAD and NAD
Activated by HS-CoA
Synth- in cytosol, uses NADPH
Activated by HS-ACP
145
What must happen to acetyl units before they can be added to a growing FA chain?
Activation by addition of HS-CoA
146
What must first happen to prepare activated Acetyl groups for FA synthesis?
Malonyl ACP combines with Acetyl ACP
| Malonyl= ACoA + BiCarb, activated with addition of HS-ACP
147
What is the longest FA that can by synthesized?
Palmitate @ 16C
148
What hormone stimulates the formation of FA?
Insulin in adipose tissues
| Stims glycolysis and olidation of pyruvate to yield ACoA
149
What hormone activated B-oxidation?
Glucagon/low blood glucose in mitchondria matrix
150
B oxidation
```
in mitochondria matrix
+ glucagon/low glucose
+ by HS-CoA
Initial- FA
Initial CoEnzyme- FAD, NAD
Cleaves acetyl groups x 2
Final product- ACoA
Final enzymes: FADH2, NADH
```
151
Lipogenesis ( FA synth)
```
In cytosol
Stim by insulin/high glucose
+ by HS-ACP
Initial- ACoA, NADPH
Adds acetyl groups
End product: FA, NADP
```
152
Define protein turn over
Breaking down proteins and synthesizing new ones
153
How is excess protein eliminated from the body?
Urea
154
What happens when dietary protein intake exceed N amounts needed for protein synthesis?
amino group removed making a-keto acid
155
C atoms from amino groups are used where?
CAC
FA synthesis
Ketone bodies
Glucose
156
How/where does degredation of amino acids usually occur?
In liver by transanimation
| amino group->aa, usually a-ketoglutarate catalyzed by aminotransferase
157
What is the process called that removes glutamate amino group?
What does it produce?
What catalyzes it?
Oxidative deamination
a-ketoglutarate
Catalyzed by glutamate dehydrogenase using NAD as coenzyme
158
Any amino group from any amino acid can be used to from what?
Glutamate by transanimation
159
Where does the urea cycle occur?
LIver, both cytosol and mitochondria
160
What are the 9 essential AAs?
```
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Valine
PVT TM HILL
```
161
What is Phenylketonuria?
| How is it treated/managed?
Can't convert phenyalanine to tyrosine
Defected phenylalanine hydroxylase
Diet low in phenylalanine, high in tyrosine
162
Digestion of carbs begins in the mouth with the actions of what enzyme?
a-amylase
163
What is the only oxidative step in glycolysis?
Oxidation of G3P
164
For every mole of glucose degraded into pyruvate, _M of ATP and _M of NADH are produced
2;2
165
What compound does glycogen most likely resemble?
Amylopectin
166
Glucagon will __ glycogenolysis and __ glycogenesis
Inc
| Dec
167
What is the biggest difference between glycolysis and gluconeogenesis?
Steps that re-form Phosphoenolpyruvate
168
3 steps of CAC that form NADH
3 4 8
1st oxidative decarboxylation
2nd oxidative decarboxylation
Dehydrogenation forming Oxaloacetate
169
What accepts the H/phosphate in the reaction between SuccCoa->Succinate?
GDP @ #5
170
What oxidizing agent is used in both anaerobic glycolysis and CAC?
NAD
171
3 examples of "high-energy" compounds and 1 non-high energy compound?
High: NAD, ATP, ADP
Non: G6P
172
3 true statements if an inhibitor blocks the ETC
Carriers preceding block will be in reduced form
Cell will die
ATP synthesis stops
173
How much ATP energy comes from glycolysis?
| The total amount of energy from complete glucose oxidation?
7 ATP
| 32 ATP
174
Normal fasting cholesterol blood levels?
120-250mg/100
175
Digestion of fats is initiated by what kind of enzyme?
LIpase
176
3 enzymes required for B-oxidation
FAD
NAD
HS-CoA
Not FADH2
177
What is the sequence of steps in B-oxidation?
1st oxidation
Hydration
2nd oxidation
Cleabage
178
What is the oxidizing agent of the FA cycle?
NAD+
179
3 true statements of FA synthesis
Links 2C acetyl units together
Occurs in cytosol
Uses NADPH
180
What catalyzes joining ACoA and BiCarb to make malonyl-CoA?
ACoA Carboxylase
181
Protein digestion utilizes what type of enzymes?
Pepsin
182
AA can be used to make what 3 things?
Hormones
Neurotransmitters
Proteins
183
Synthesis of muscle protein from AAs is what type of process?
Anabolic
184
What is the source of C in urea
Proteins
185
5 fates of AAs
```
Build proteins
Precursor for hormones/signaling molecules
Purine/pyrimidine components
Excess->CAC
Gluconeogenesis
```
186
Carbohydrates are important in the synthesis of which energy molecule?
NADPH
187
What are the major storage forms of energy in adipose tissue?
Triglycerides
188
What is the element of stability in ATP?
Magnesium
189
How much energy per Kg does an average adult use to maintain health/weight?
24kcal/kg
190
What 3 intermediates link anabolic and catabolic pathways of carbohydrate metabolism?
G6P
Pyruvate
ACoA
191
G6P can enter what 3 pathways?
Glycogenesis
Glycolysis
PPP
192
PPP is primarily regulated by availability of 2 things
G6P
| NADP
193
What is the committing step of glycolysis?
F 1 6 bisP
194
What enzyme restarts glycolysis after a meal?
F 2 6 bisP
195
Pyruvate can be changed into what 4 substrates?
Lactate
Alanine
Oxaloacetate
ACoA
196
What are the 4 parts of preproinsulin?
Leader
B Chain
C peptide
A Chain
197
What produces proinsulin?
| What creates active insulin?
Removal of leader sequence
| Removal of C-peptide
198
How does glucose enter pancreatic B-cells?
GLUT 2 passively
199
Steps that occur to stimulate the release of insulin?
Glucose-> B cells
Oxidized into ATP, stims K+ depolarization
Depolarization opens Ca channels
Ionisitol triphosphate stims Ca release from ER
Triggers insulin release
200
Where are insulin receptors found?
Liver cells
Fat cells
Muscle cells
201
Insulin works via _______ receptors
tyrosine kinase
202
How does glucagon signal?
GPCR
| cAMP
203
Glucagon is made in what form?
Preproglucagon
204
Where is corticotrophin releasing factor released from?
| What effect does it have?
Hypothalamus
| Stim/release of adrenocoticotropic hormone in ant. pituitary to cortisol from adrenal glands
205
How does cortisol cause it's changes?
Regulates transcription and translation at the gene level (transcription of lipase)
206
Characteristics of Type I diabetes
Liver can make glucose, glycogen synth impeded
Gluconeogenesis unrestrained but glucose can't be taken up by GLUT 4 due to no insulin
Stim'd -neogenesis, -genolysis and lipolysis, inc VLDL?LDL
207
Characteristics of Diabetes Type II
Unrestrained gluconeogenesis
Not GLUT 4 absorption
Liver can make glycogen and lipolysis regulated
HHNS- sugar in urine
Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic nonketonic syndrome
208
Insulin lowers what processes?
Gluconeogenesis
Glycogenolysis
Lipolysis
209
Glucagon lowers what processes?
Glycolysis
FA synthesis
Glycogen synthesis
210
Catecholamines lower what processes?
Glycolysis
Glycogen synthesis
FA synthesis
TG uptake
211
What are the 5 membrane phospholipids?
Cardiolipin (diphosphatidylglycerol)
- serine
- thanolamine
- choline
- linositol
212
What are the charges of the 5 phospholipids?
```
G- neg
S- neg
T- neutral
C- neutral
L- neg
```
213
Where are the 5 phospholipids found?
```
G- inner mitochondria membrane
S- inner platelet mem, activate= outer platelet mem
T- interior and exterior cell mem
C- interior and exterior cell mem
L- interior and exterior cell mem
```
214
What are the functions of the 5 phospholipids?
G- lower blood clots, stabilize ETC enzyme, moves cholesterol/proteins from out to in mitochon mem, assists w/ folding mitochon proteins
S- primary promoter of anticoagulant protein C pathway, feedback inhibition of thrombin formation
T- signals APCP
C- signal APCP
L- signals APCP, initiation of DNA replication
215
Which phospholipids are small and likely found on the inner side of the membrane?
PS- serine
| PE- thanolamine
216
Which phospholipid would be found on the outside of the cell membrane and increases adherence to other cells and tissues?
PS- serine
217
How would PS move from inner to outter membrane?
Enzyme Flippase
218
What type of membrane proteins act as anchor points?
Peripheral
219
Integral proteins are usually made of what type of AAs?
uncharged, hydrophobic aa
220
Integral proteins can serve what two functions?
Channel proteins
| Signaling proteins
221
Define lipid rafts
Domains of an area/side that can receive signals or transport molecules in/out of cell
Influence membrane protein function
222
Where are membrane channels found within the membrane compared to hydrophobic AAs?
Mem Channels- secondary structures
| Hydrophobic- 3*/4* structures
223
How do un/charged molecules move through lipid membrane?
Hydrophilic or charged AAs on inside of channel
224
What 2 factors can simple channels control?
Diameter of tube
| Hydrophobic/philic environment on interior of tube
225
Simple channels only work due to ___
| What is an example of simple channel?
Gradients
| Gap junctions
226
What is different about facilitated protein channels?
Charged AA at gate of channel to regulate movement and change when signaled to allow passage
227
Steroid hormones can be further divided into what 5 categories?
```
Androgens
Estrogens
Glucocorticoids
Mineralcorticoids
Progestagens
Vit D
```
228
What does Gs do
cAMP production and Protein Kinase Signaling
229
What does Gi do?
Inhibits cAMP production
| Minor stimulant to Phospholipase C
230
What does Gq do
Simulates Phospholipase C
231
What does G12/13 do?
Activation= change in cytoskeleton
| Regulation of cell cycle motility
232
What does Gt do?
Transducin molecule of rods/cones in visual signals
233
What makes cAMP?
Adenyl Cyclase
234
What does Protein Kinase C do?
Change membrane structure
Regulate transcription
Regulate cell growth
235
What two AAs can be glucogenic and ketogenic?
Isoleucine
| Phenylalanine
236
Explain cAMP signaling
Adenylyl cyclase activated by ATP->cAMP then activated Protein Kinase A and phosphorylation
237
cAMP stimulatory ligands activate via __
| cAMP inhibitiory ligands activate via__
Gs
| Gi
238
Explain phospholipase C protein kinase C signaling
Activated by Gq, causes Ca+ release from ER
239
Receptor tyrosine kinase, Janus Kinases and Integral Guanyl Cyclase are also AKA ?
Guanylyl / guanylate cyclase receptors
| Bind to signal molecule, carry out enzymatic function leading to activation of a specific signal pathway
240
What gives the mosaic model it's "mosaic" characteristic?
Bilayer has protein, carbs and cholesterols
241
3 molecules that move by diffusion?
| 3 molecules that move by facilitated diffusion?
o2, co2, urea
| Cl, BiCarb, glucose
242
What 3 AAs are essential as infants/children?
Arginine
Cysteine
Tyrosine
243
AA synthesis retrieves the C skeleton from what two places?
CAC
| Glycolysis
244
What does transferring AA from glutamate to pyruvate make?
| What is the transaminase abbreviation?
Alanine
Alanine transaminase
SGPT
245
Oxaloacetate is what kind of molecule?
Keto acid from CAC
246
What happens when Oxaloacetate transanimates with glutamate?
| What is the transaminase abbreviation?
Aspartate and an a-ketoglutarate
Catalyzed by aspartate transanimase
SGOT
247
Where are transaniminases ALT and AST abundant?
Heart
| Liver
248
How is glutamine formed?
2nd amino group added to glutamate
249
What has to happen to prepare for the Urea Cycle?
Ammonium + CO2 + H2O= Carbomyl phosphate
250
In urea, what is made when Carbomyl phosphate is transferred to Ornithine?
Citrulline
251
In step 2 of urea cylce, Citrulline + asparate =?
Agininosuccinate
252
Where does a urea molecule get it's N atom?
Aspartate
253
What is cleaved in Step 3 of Urea Cycle and what is made?
Argninosuccinate = arginine and fumarate
254
What happens in Urea Cycle step 4 when arginine is splite?
Urea
| Ornithine
255
Oxidative deanimation strips the amino group from which AA?
Glutamate
| NAD is used by coenzyme
256
What process takes place to convert an amino group to an ammonium ion?
Oxidative deamination
257
Glycolysis = __ ATP
Oxid/Decarb= _ATP
CAC x 2= _ ATP
2 NADH-5, direct phosphorylation-2', 7ATP
2NADH- 5 ATP
8NADH and 2 FADH2= 20ATP
258
If phospotidylserine is on the outside of a cell for?
| On the inside for?
```
In= interncellular communication
Out= platelet activation for thrombin formation
```
259
Bacteria Treponemia Pallidum produces Abs against what phosholipid?
Cardiolipin
260
What does lipoprotein -thenolamine regulate?
| Where is it secreted from?
Membrane curvature
| VLDL
261
Which lipoprotein is the major factor of surfactant?
-choline
262
Which lipoprotein is used for guastaory purposes?
-linositol
263
Where/how is IP3 made and what for?
-linositol is phosphorylated version of PIP2 which can be cleaved into IP3 for intracellular messaging
264
How does cholesterol get stabilized in the lipid bilayer?
H bonding
| Can der Wall forces
265
Polyene antifungals ding to what?
Ergosterol
266
Facilitated diffusion involves a carrier protein that has_____
Conformation changed by release of energy/phosphorylation from nucleotide moleucles
267
CCB meds end w/ what suffix?
-dipine
268
H2 blockers end with what suffix?
-tidine
269
What psychiatric drug can be used to decrease aquaporin 2 channels?
Lithium
270
3 stages of cell signaling?
Reception
Transduction
Response
271
What are the 4 types of cell signaling?
Paracrine
Autocrine
Endocrine
Cell-to-cell
272
What kind of signaling utilizes intracellular mediators?
Gap junctions
273
How do signals pass into Group I intracellular receptor proteins?
Pass through by diffusion
274
What type of receptor is used to transmit a message from one side of the cell to another?
Group II surface receptors
275
Once inside a cell, what do steroid hormones bind to?
Cytoplasmic receptors
| Nucleus receptors
276
Steroid hormones that effect DNA synthesis are called ?
Genomic
277
GPCR is AKA ?
Seven-transmembrane domain receptors
278
All GPCRs rely on ? to convey external message to inside of cell?
Conformational change causing GDP->GTP
279
What are the 3 different GPCR sub-units?
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
280
Activation of phospholipase C is done via ?
a-Gq
281
4 second messengers and their function?
cAMP- phosphorylation
| DAG/IP3- phospholipase c cleaves membrane causing intracellular release of Ca
282
3 benefits/results of second messengers?
Multiple membrane, Cytoplasmic, and Nuclear effects
283
Soluble Receptor Associated Tyrosine Kinases include what 4?
Receptor tyrosine kinase
Janus kinases
Inegral guanyl cyclase
284
What is the result of Jak-Stat ?
Binding in DNA causing expression of certain genes
285
What do muscle contractions rely on?
Voltage gated Ca channels
286
What is the predominant cardiac voltage gated channel?
L type
| a-1 subunit w/ 6 trans-membrane alpha helices
287
What is the B-subunit of voltage gated Ca channels?
Guanylate kinase
| Catalyzes ATP + GMP causing regulation of a1-pore sensitivity causing VDCC to open by depolarization
288
Epi can bind with what adrenergic receptors?
A1- Gq stimulate
A2- Gi inhib cAMP
B1- Gs stim cAMP
B2- Gs stim cAMP
289
What is the main receptor in the heart?
B1
290
Were are B1 receptors found
Heart
| Kidney
291
Where are B3 receptors found?
Fat cells
