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IPAP > BioChem Block 4 > Flashcards

BioChem Block 4 Flashcards

1
Q

ATP can be used do work such as what 4 things?

A

Contract muscles
Synthesize large molecules
Nerve impulses
Move substances across cell mem.

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2
Q

Define metabolism

A

All chemical reactions that provide energy and substances required for continued cell growth

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3
Q

What are the two metabolism reactions?

A

Catabolic- breaking down

Anabolic- build

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4
Q

What are the 3 stages of digestion?

A

1- digestion/hydrolysis
2- degradation/small oxidation
3- release of energy to synthesize ATP

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5
Q

What events occur in stage 1 of Digestion?

A

Polysaccharieds->mono
Fats->glycerol and FAs
Proteins-> aa

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6
Q

How does catabolism begin?

A

Digestion

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7
Q

As long as cell shave oxygen, ? and ? can be reoxidized via ?

A

NADH
FADH2
ETC

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8
Q

What are the 3 parts of ATP?

A

Adenine
Ribose sugar
3 phosphate groups

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9
Q

Hydrolysis of ATP can provide _ k/cal/kj

A

7.3 kcal

31kJ

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10
Q

Hydrolysis of ATP is an ___ reaction on an energy curve

A

Exothermic

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11
Q

What is the first step in breaking down glucose?

What does this require?

A

Adding phosphate

Requires 3.3kcal/14kj

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12
Q

ATP= ? + ? + ?

A

ADP + Pi + 7.3

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13
Q

G6P= ? + ? + ?

A

Glucose + Pi + 3.3

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14
Q

Overall ATP + glucose= ?

A

ADP + G6P + 4.0

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15
Q

Define Oxidation

A

Gain of O

Loss of H/e-/energy

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16
Q

Define Reduction

A

Gain of H/e-/energy

Loss of O

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17
Q

What does NAD stand for?

A

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

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18
Q

What are the 3 parts of NAD?

A

Nicotinamide group
Ribose sugar
ADP

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19
Q

Oxidized form of NAD undergoes reduction when?

A

C atom in Nicotinamide reacts w/ 2 H, leaving one H

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20
Q

What kind of reactions is NAD required for?

A

Dehydrogenation that produce C=O

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21
Q

Give an example of a reaction that NAD would be a part of?

A

Oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes/ketones

Oxidation of ethanol to ethanal in liver w/ reduction of NAD to NADH + H

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22
Q

What does NADP stand for?

A

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

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23
Q

What kind of reactions is NADP used for?

A

Anabolic reactions, lipid/nucleic acid synthesis

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24
Q

NADP and NAD are similar except

A

2’ OH group replaced w/ phosphate group

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25
Q

What is the reduced form of NADP?

A

NADPH

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26
Q

What does FAD stand for?

A

Flavin adenine dinucleotide

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27
Q

What are the 2 parts of FAD?

A

ADP

Riboflavin

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28
Q

What are the 2 parts of riboflavin?

A

(Vit B2)
Ribitol- sugar alcohol
Flavin

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29
Q

What happens when FAD is reduced?

A

2 N atoms from flavin react w/ 2 H atoms

Fad-> FADH2

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30
Q

What kind of reactions is FAD used for?

A

Dehydrogenation

C-C -> C=C

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31
Q

What is an example of a reaction that would require FAD?

A

In CAC, conversion of succinates C-C -> C=C in fumarate w/ FAD->FADH2

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32
Q

What are the 3 parts of Coenzyme A?

A

Pantothenic Acid (B5)
Phosphorylated ADP
Aminoethanethiol

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33
Q

What is the function of CoA?

A

Prepare acyl groups for reactions w/ enzymes

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34
Q

Where/what is the reactive feature of CoA?

A

Thiol group -SH

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35
Q

What form ACoA?

A

Acetyl group + CoA

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36
Q

To digest carbs, enzymes in salivary glands hydrolyze what bonds?

A

a-glycosidic in amylose and amylopectin

Produces: maltose, glucose, dextrins

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37
Q

Define dextrins

A

Small polysaccharides 6-8 glucose in length

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38
Q

What happens to carbohydrate digestion in the stomach?

A

Stops due to pH

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39
Q

Glucose + glucose
Glucose + galactose
Glucose + fructose

A

Maltose
Lactose
Sucrose

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40
Q

Enzymes in pancreas continue carb digestion how?

A

Hydrolyze dextrins-> maltose and glucose

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41
Q

Enzymes produces in intestinal mucus lining can hydrolyze which disaccharides?

A

Maltose
Lactose
Sucrose

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42
Q

What 2 sugars does the liver use to make glucose?

A

Hexoses fructose and galactose

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43
Q

Glucose is primary energy source for ? 3 things

A

Muscle contractions
RBCs
Brain

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44
Q

Where is glycogen stored?

A

Liver

Skeletal muscle

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45
Q

Glucose is degraded through what pathway?

A

Glycolysis- anaerobic path

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46
Q

Where does glycolysis occur?

A

Cytosol

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47
Q

First 5 steps of glycolysis are called?

Last 5 steps are called?

A

Energy investment

Energy generating

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48
Q

What are the 10 reactions of glycolysis

A 
Phosphorylation
Isomerization
Phosphorylation
Cleavage
Isomerization
Oxidation/Phosphorylation
Phosphate transfer
Isomerization
Dehydration
Phosphate transfer
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49
Q

Overall, what is the net gain from glycolysis?

A

2 ATP

2 NADH when glucose is converted to two pyruvate

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50
Q

How/where does galactose enter glycolysis?

A

Galactose->ATP->G1P->G6P at Reaction 2

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51
Q

How does fructose from muscles enter glycolysis?

How does fructose from the liver enter glycolysis?

A

F6P-> Reaction 3

Fructose->F1P-> Glyceraldehyde 3 Phosphate, Reaction 6

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52
Q

Where/how is glycolysis regulated?

A

1- Hexokinase, inhib by high G6P
3- PFK-1, inhib by high ATP, stim by high AM/DP
10- pyruvate kinase, inhib by high ATP or ACoA

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53
Q

What is it called when the first enzyme of a pathway is inhibited?

A

Feedback control, type of enzymatic regulation

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54
Q

What/where are the allosteric enzymes of glycolysis?

A

3- PFK 1

10- pyruvate kinase

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55
Q

What is the purpose of the PPP?

A

Alternative route to oxidize glucose for anabolic purposes

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56
Q

What does the PPP produce?

A

NADPH

5C pentoses

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57
Q

NADP is used for biosynthesis of ? 3 things where?

A

Nucleic acids
Cholesterol
FAs
In liver and adipose cells

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58
Q

How is PPP started?

A

G6P converted to ribulose-5-phosphate

Reqs two NADP

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59
Q

What is the second step of the PPP?

A

R5P isomerized by PPP isomerase to ribose-5-phosphate

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60
Q

What is the final step of the PPP?

A

Three R5P to two hexose molecules and one triose to participate in glycolysis

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61
Q

Under aerobic conditions, oxygen will convert pyruvate into ?
What about under anaerobic conditions?

A

ACoA, CO2

Lactate

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62
Q

What do yeast cells reduce pyruvate into?

A

Ethanol

CO2

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63
Q

How many ATP are generated in glycolysis when glucose is converted into two pyruvate?

A

2 ATP

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64
Q

Where does pyruvate move to during aerobic conditions?

A

Move from cytosol into mitochondria

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65
Q

Aerobic conditions produce what products from pyruvate?

A

CO2
NAD reduced
Acetyl CoA

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66
Q

What happens to pyruvate during anaerobic conditions?

A

Remains in cytosol, reduced to lactate

NAD oxidized G3P to produce ATP

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67
Q

After exercise and O2 debt is repaid, what happens to lactate?

A

Transported to liver, converted to pyruvate

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68
Q

Bacteria converting pyruvate to lactate is seen in what examples?

A

Pickling

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69
Q

What type of conditions do yeast convert sugars to ethanol?

A

Fermentation, anaerobic conditions

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70
Q

3 steps of fermentation

A

Pyruvate formed from glycolysis
CO2 removed
NAD regenerated from ethanal reducing to ethanol

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71
Q

Glycogen is a polymer of glucose with what types of bonds?

A

a1-4 in chain

a1-6 on branches

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72
Q

When glycogen stores are full, what happens to any remaining glucose?

A

Converted to triacylglycerols and stored as fat

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73
Q

Define glycogenesis

A

Converting glucose to glycogen

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74
Q

What product of glycolysis can also be stored as glycogen?

A

G6P

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75
Q

What are the 3 Reactions of Glycogenesis?

A

Isomerization
Activation
Synthesis

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76
Q

What happens in Reaction 1 of Glycogenesis?

A

G6P->G1p by phosphoglucomutase

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77
Q

What happens in Reaction 2 of Glycogenesis?

A

UDP added to glucose by pyrophosphorylase

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78
Q

What happens in Reaction 3 of Glycogenesis?

A

UDP-glucose broken by Glycogen Synthase

Glucose added to glycogen chain

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79
Q

Define Glycogenolysis

A

Glycogen conversion to glucose

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80
Q

What are the 4 Reactions of Glycogenolysis?

A

Phosphorylation
Hydrolysis
Isomerization
Dephosphorylation

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81
Q

What does insulin do to regulate glycogen metabolism?

A

Inc glycogen synthesis

Inc oxidation reactions (glycolysis)

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82
Q

What does glucagon do to regulate glycogen metabolism?

A

Increases glycogenolysis

Inhibits synthesis of glycogen

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83
Q

What converts glycogen phosphorylase from inactive to active?

A

Epinephrine

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84
Q

G1P and G6P can both be seen as intermediates of what 2 processes?

A

Glycogenesis

Glycogenolysis

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85
Q

UDP-glucose is only involved with which process?

A

Glycogenesis

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86
Q

With plentiful O2, pyruvate from glycolysis is converted to _____ , catalyzed by _____

A

ACoA

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase

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87
Q

CAC connects what two things?

A

ACoA from stage 2 to ETC in stage 3

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88
Q

CAC uses ___ to produce CO2 and reduce ___ and ___

A

ACoA
FADH2
NAD

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89
Q

Each turn of the CAC includes ___ oxidation reactions

A

4

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90
Q

In 4 oxidation reactions from one turn of CAC, what is produced?

A

3 NADH
1 FADH2
1 ATP

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91
Q

What 3 things inhibit CAC?

What stims CAC?

A

ATP, NADH, Citrate

ADP

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92
Q

What 3 CAC enzymes respond to both allosteric regulation and feedback inhibition?

A

Citrate Synthase #1- +ADP, -ATP, NADH, citrate
Isocitrate Dehydrogenase#3- -ATP, NADH, +ADP
a-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase #4- - NADH, succinyl CoA, + ADP

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93
Q

PTs w/ diseases of their CAC will show what S/Sx?

A

Neurological problems

Excrete high amounts of CAC compounds in urine

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94
Q

For each molecule of glucose that completes glycolysis, the oxidation of two pyruvate and CAC, what is created?

A

4 ATP
10 NADH
2 FADH2

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95
Q

Glycolysis = _ATP _ NADH
2 Pyruvate Oxid= _ATP _NADH
CAC w/ 2 ACoA= _ATP _NADH

A

2 2
0 2
2 6 2 FADH2

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96
Q

Each step of the ETC is an individual ?

A

Oxidation-reduction reaction

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97
Q

Define Oxidative Phosphorylation

A

Energy from ETC used to synthesize ADP + Pi-> ATP

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98
Q

ETC and oxidative phosphorylation will continue as long as __ is present

A

O

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99
Q

Which protein complexes extend through inner mitochondrial membrane?

A

1 3 4
One end- matrix
Other end- intermembrane space

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100
Q

What are the two e- carriers of the ETC?

A

CoQ

Cytochrome C

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101
Q

Define Chemiosmotic Model

A

Links energy from ETC to H ion gradient to drive ATP synthesis

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102
Q

Moving H from matrix to intermembrane space lowers the pH in the ____ and creates a ______

A

intermembrane
H gradient
electrochemical gradient

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103
Q

NADH enters ETC @ complex _
FADH2 enters ETC @ complex _
What does this cause?

A

1

2- doesn’t connect outside of the matrix, FADH2 generates less energy

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104
Q

Total ATP for complete oxidation of glucose under aerobic conditions can be calculated by combining what numbers?

A

Glycolysis- 7
Oxidation of pyruvate- 5
CAC- 20
ETC

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105
Q

Where does the malate-aspartate shuttle operate?

A

Heart

Liver

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106
Q

2 ACoA= __ CO2 + _ATP from two turns of CAC

A

4 CO2

20 ATP

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107
Q

Grand summary of TOTAL ATP produced from oxidation of one glucose?

A

32

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108
Q

What are the two main components of a cell membrane?

A

Glycerophospholipids

Sphingolipids

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109
Q

What are the 2 parts of a phospholipid?

A

Non-polar/hydrocarbon tail w/ 2 long chain FA

Polar region of phosphate and ionized amino alcohol

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110
Q

Why don’t phospholipids fit closely together in the bilayer?

A

Most are unsat FA, kinks in C chains @ cis-double bonds

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111
Q

Define Fluid Mosaic Model

A

Lipid bilayer is not rigid, but dynamic and fluid like

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112
Q

Where do peripheral proteins show up in the bilayer?

A

Just one surface

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113
Q

Where do integral show up in the bilayer?

A

Extend through whole bilayer

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114
Q

Carbohydrates that emerge from cell membrane perform what 2 functions?

A

Cell recognition

Cell communication- hormones/neurotransmitters

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115
Q

Cholesterols majority presence but large and rigid nature causes what to a cell membrane?

A

Reduces flexibility
Adds strength to membrane
Prevents crystalization

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116
Q

________ membranes separate aqueous solutions

A

Nonpolar

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117
Q

Main function of cellular membrane?

A

Allow movement/transport of ion/molecules from one side to another

118
Q

What are the 2 general types of transport across a membrane?

A

Passive- high->low concentration (facilitated diffusion, diffusion)
Active- low->high concentration, reqs energy

119
Q

What is the simplest transport mechanism?

A

Diffusion

120
Q

Protein channels allow facilitated diffusion of what things?

A

Cl
BiCarb
Glucose

121
Q

3 examples of ions that move across a cell membrane AGAINST their gradient?
How do these ions move?

A

K
Na
Ca
Active transport

122
Q

Initial digestion of dietary triacylglycerols starts where?

What catalyzes this initiation?

A

Small intestine

Catalyzed by lipases

123
Q

How is the process of fat storage stimulated?

A

Glucagon

Epinephrine

124
Q

What happens when epinephrine binds to adipose tissue?

A

Hormone sensitive lipase catalyzes triacylglycerol hydrolysis to glycerol and FAs

125
Q

What happens to glycerol and FAs when they’re hydrolysis is complete and they pass into the bloodstream?

A

Bind with proteins (albumin) for transport

126
Q

Most of glycerol released (dietary or storage) is metabolized where and converting it to what?

A

Liver

To Dihydroxyacetone phosphate

127
Q

What are the two steps of converting glycerol to dihydroxyacetone phosphate?

A

ATP phosphorylates glycerol to G3P

2nd hydroxyl group is oxidized to dihydroxyacetone phosphate

128
Q

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is an intermediate of many metabolic pathways including?

A

Glycolysis

Gluconeogenesis

129
Q

Define B-oxidation?

A

Removal of 2C segments, one at a time, from carboxyl end of a FA

130
Q

Each cycle of B-oxidation produces what 2 things?

A

ACoA

FA -2Cs

131
Q

B-oxidation cycles will repeat until the original FA is degraded to ?

A

2C ACoA

132
Q

Where are FAs produced?

A

Cytosol

133
Q

How do FAs get to the mitochondira for B-oxidation?

A

Carnitine shuttle

134
Q

What are the 3 types of ketones?

A

Acetoacetate
3 hydroxybutyrate
Acetone

135
Q

What determines the number of B-oxidation cycle repeats?

A

FA length

10C= 5 ACoa, so 4 cycle repeats

136
Q

What happens if an odd-numbers FA goes through B-oxidation?

A

Same as even until final cycle

Remaining FACoA cleaved, yields Propionyl CoA and ACoA

137
Q

What has to happen to Unsat FA before they can undergo B-oxidation?
What does the effect though?

A

Cis->trans between a-b carbon

No FADH2 produces, decrease total FADH2 yield by 1/double bond

138
Q

Each cycle of B-oxidation requires how much ATP?

What does each cycle produce?

A

2 per cycle

1 NADH- 2.5 ATP
1 FADH2- 1.5 ATP
1 ACoA

Coezymes can be oxidized through ETC to synthesize 4 ATP

139
Q

How much ATP can be synthesized from the CAC from one ACoA entering the cylce

A

1 ACoA releases enough energy to synthesize 10 ATP

140
Q

What happens to excess ACoA that doesn’t/can’t enter the CAC?

A

Go to ketogenesis

141
Q

What are the 4 Reactions of Ketogenesis

A

Condensation
Hydrolysis
Hydrogenation (reduction)
Decarboxylation

142
Q

What can stimulate/trigger ketosis?

A

Low carb/high fat diet
Fasting
Vigorous exercise
Diabetes

143
Q

What can happen to 3-hydroxybutyrate and Acetoacetate if they’re not used for Ketosis?

A

Converted back to ACoA and used in CAC

144
Q

Difference between FA oxidation and FA synthesis?

A

Oxid- in mitochondria, uses FAD and NAD
Activated by HS-CoA

Synth- in cytosol, uses NADPH
Activated by HS-ACP

145
Q

What must happen to acetyl units before they can be added to a growing FA chain?

A

Activation by addition of HS-CoA

146
Q

What must first happen to prepare activated Acetyl groups for FA synthesis?

A

Malonyl ACP combines with Acetyl ACP

Malonyl= ACoA + BiCarb, activated with addition of HS-ACP

147
Q

What is the longest FA that can by synthesized?

A

Palmitate @ 16C

148
Q

What hormone stimulates the formation of FA?

A

Insulin in adipose tissues

Stims glycolysis and olidation of pyruvate to yield ACoA

149
Q

What hormone activated B-oxidation?

A

Glucagon/low blood glucose in mitchondria matrix

150
Q

B oxidation

A 
in mitochondria matrix
\+ glucagon/low glucose
\+ by HS-CoA
Initial- FA 
Initial CoEnzyme- FAD, NAD
Cleaves acetyl groups x 2
Final product- ACoA
Final enzymes: FADH2, NADH
151
Q

Lipogenesis ( FA synth)

A 
In cytosol
Stim by insulin/high glucose
\+ by HS-ACP
Initial- ACoA, NADPH
Adds acetyl groups
End product: FA, NADP
152
Q

Define protein turn over

A

Breaking down proteins and synthesizing new ones

153
Q

How is excess protein eliminated from the body?

A

Urea

154
Q

What happens when dietary protein intake exceed N amounts needed for protein synthesis?

A

amino group removed making a-keto acid

155
Q

C atoms from amino groups are used where?

A

CAC
FA synthesis
Ketone bodies
Glucose

156
Q

How/where does degredation of amino acids usually occur?

A

In liver by transanimation

amino group->aa, usually a-ketoglutarate catalyzed by aminotransferase

157
Q

What is the process called that removes glutamate amino group?
What does it produce?
What catalyzes it?

A

Oxidative deamination
a-ketoglutarate
Catalyzed by glutamate dehydrogenase using NAD as coenzyme

158
Q

Any amino group from any amino acid can be used to from what?

A

Glutamate by transanimation

159
Q

Where does the urea cycle occur?

A

LIver, both cytosol and mitochondria

160
Q

What are the 9 essential AAs?

A 
Histidine
Isoleucine
Leucine
Lysine
Methionine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Tryptophan
Valine
PVT TM HILL
161
Q

What is Phenylketonuria?

How is it treated/managed?

A

Can’t convert phenyalanine to tyrosine
Defected phenylalanine hydroxylase
Diet low in phenylalanine, high in tyrosine

162
Q

Digestion of carbs begins in the mouth with the actions of what enzyme?

A

a-amylase

163
Q

What is the only oxidative step in glycolysis?

A

Oxidation of G3P

164
Q

For every mole of glucose degraded into pyruvate, _M of ATP and _M of NADH are produced

A

2;2

165
Q

What compound does glycogen most likely resemble?

A

Amylopectin

166
Q

Glucagon will __ glycogenolysis and __ glycogenesis

A

Inc

Dec

167
Q

What is the biggest difference between glycolysis and gluconeogenesis?

A

Steps that re-form Phosphoenolpyruvate

168
Q

3 steps of CAC that form NADH

A

3 4 8
1st oxidative decarboxylation
2nd oxidative decarboxylation
Dehydrogenation forming Oxaloacetate

169
Q

What accepts the H/phosphate in the reaction between SuccCoa->Succinate?

A

GDP @ #5

170
Q

What oxidizing agent is used in both anaerobic glycolysis and CAC?

A

NAD

171
Q

3 examples of “high-energy” compounds and 1 non-high energy compound?

A

High: NAD, ATP, ADP
Non: G6P

172
Q

3 true statements if an inhibitor blocks the ETC

A

Carriers preceding block will be in reduced form
Cell will die
ATP synthesis stops

173
Q

How much ATP energy comes from glycolysis?

The total amount of energy from complete glucose oxidation?

A

7 ATP

32 ATP

174
Q

Normal fasting cholesterol blood levels?

A

120-250mg/100

175
Q

Digestion of fats is initiated by what kind of enzyme?

A

LIpase

176
Q

3 enzymes required for B-oxidation

A

FAD
NAD
HS-CoA

Not FADH2

177
Q

What is the sequence of steps in B-oxidation?

A

1st oxidation
Hydration
2nd oxidation
Cleabage

178
Q

What is the oxidizing agent of the FA cycle?

A

NAD+

179
Q

3 true statements of FA synthesis

A

Links 2C acetyl units together
Occurs in cytosol
Uses NADPH

180
Q

What catalyzes joining ACoA and BiCarb to make malonyl-CoA?

A

ACoA Carboxylase

181
Q

Protein digestion utilizes what type of enzymes?

A

Pepsin

182
Q

AA can be used to make what 3 things?

A

Hormones
Neurotransmitters
Proteins

183
Q

Synthesis of muscle protein from AAs is what type of process?

A

Anabolic

184
Q

What is the source of C in urea

A

Proteins

185
Q

5 fates of AAs

A 
Build proteins
Precursor for hormones/signaling molecules
Purine/pyrimidine components
Excess->CAC
Gluconeogenesis
186
Q

Carbohydrates are important in the synthesis of which energy molecule?

A

NADPH

187
Q

What are the major storage forms of energy in adipose tissue?

A

Triglycerides

188
Q

What is the element of stability in ATP?

A

Magnesium

189
Q

How much energy per Kg does an average adult use to maintain health/weight?

A

24kcal/kg

190
Q

What 3 intermediates link anabolic and catabolic pathways of carbohydrate metabolism?

A

G6P
Pyruvate
ACoA

191
Q

G6P can enter what 3 pathways?

A

Glycogenesis
Glycolysis
PPP

192
Q

PPP is primarily regulated by availability of 2 things

A

G6P

NADP

193
Q

What is the committing step of glycolysis?

A

F 1 6 bisP

194
Q

What enzyme restarts glycolysis after a meal?

A

F 2 6 bisP

195
Q

Pyruvate can be changed into what 4 substrates?

A

Lactate
Alanine
Oxaloacetate
ACoA

196
Q

What are the 4 parts of preproinsulin?

A

Leader
B Chain
C peptide
A Chain

197
Q

What produces proinsulin?

What creates active insulin?

A

Removal of leader sequence

Removal of C-peptide

198
Q

How does glucose enter pancreatic B-cells?

A

GLUT 2 passively

199
Q

Steps that occur to stimulate the release of insulin?

A

Glucose-> B cells
Oxidized into ATP, stims K+ depolarization
Depolarization opens Ca channels
Ionisitol triphosphate stims Ca release from ER
Triggers insulin release

200
Q

Where are insulin receptors found?

A

Liver cells
Fat cells
Muscle cells

201
Q

Insulin works via _______ receptors

A

tyrosine kinase

202
Q

How does glucagon signal?

A

GPCR

cAMP

203
Q

Glucagon is made in what form?

A

Preproglucagon

204
Q

Where is corticotrophin releasing factor released from?

What effect does it have?

A

Hypothalamus

Stim/release of adrenocoticotropic hormone in ant. pituitary to cortisol from adrenal glands

205
Q

How does cortisol cause it’s changes?

A

Regulates transcription and translation at the gene level (transcription of lipase)

206
Q

Characteristics of Type I diabetes

A

Liver can make glucose, glycogen synth impeded
Gluconeogenesis unrestrained but glucose can’t be taken up by GLUT 4 due to no insulin
Stim’d -neogenesis, -genolysis and lipolysis, inc VLDL?LDL

207
Q

Characteristics of Diabetes Type II

A

Unrestrained gluconeogenesis
Not GLUT 4 absorption
Liver can make glycogen and lipolysis regulated
HHNS- sugar in urine
Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic nonketonic syndrome

208
Q

Insulin lowers what processes?

A

Gluconeogenesis
Glycogenolysis
Lipolysis

209
Q

Glucagon lowers what processes?

A

Glycolysis
FA synthesis
Glycogen synthesis

210
Q

Catecholamines lower what processes?

A

Glycolysis
Glycogen synthesis
FA synthesis
TG uptake

211
Q

What are the 5 membrane phospholipids?

A

Cardiolipin (diphosphatidylglycerol)

  • serine
  • thanolamine
  • choline
  • linositol
212
Q

What are the charges of the 5 phospholipids?

A 
G- neg
S- neg
T- neutral
C- neutral
L- neg
213
Q

Where are the 5 phospholipids found?

A 
G- inner mitochondria membrane
S- inner platelet mem, activate= outer platelet mem
T- interior and exterior cell mem
C- interior and exterior cell mem
L- interior and exterior cell mem
214
Q

What are the functions of the 5 phospholipids?

A

G- lower blood clots, stabilize ETC enzyme, moves cholesterol/proteins from out to in mitochon mem, assists w/ folding mitochon proteins
S- primary promoter of anticoagulant protein C pathway, feedback inhibition of thrombin formation
T- signals APCP
C- signal APCP
L- signals APCP, initiation of DNA replication

215
Q

Which phospholipids are small and likely found on the inner side of the membrane?

A

PS- serine

PE- thanolamine

216
Q

Which phospholipid would be found on the outside of the cell membrane and increases adherence to other cells and tissues?

A

PS- serine

217
Q

How would PS move from inner to outter membrane?

A

Enzyme Flippase

218
Q

What type of membrane proteins act as anchor points?

A

Peripheral

219
Q

Integral proteins are usually made of what type of AAs?

A

uncharged, hydrophobic aa

220
Q

Integral proteins can serve what two functions?

A

Channel proteins

Signaling proteins

221
Q

Define lipid rafts

A

Domains of an area/side that can receive signals or transport molecules in/out of cell
Influence membrane protein function

222
Q

Where are membrane channels found within the membrane compared to hydrophobic AAs?

A

Mem Channels- secondary structures

Hydrophobic- 3/4 structures

223
Q

How do un/charged molecules move through lipid membrane?

A

Hydrophilic or charged AAs on inside of channel

224
Q

What 2 factors can simple channels control?

A

Diameter of tube

Hydrophobic/philic environment on interior of tube

225
Q

Simple channels only work due to ___

What is an example of simple channel?

A

Gradients

Gap junctions

226
Q

What is different about facilitated protein channels?

A

Charged AA at gate of channel to regulate movement and change when signaled to allow passage

227
Q

Steroid hormones can be further divided into what 5 categories?

A 
Androgens
Estrogens
Glucocorticoids
Mineralcorticoids
Progestagens
Vit D
228
Q

What does Gs do

A

cAMP production and Protein Kinase Signaling

229
Q

What does Gi do?

A

Inhibits cAMP production

Minor stimulant to Phospholipase C

230
Q

What does Gq do

A

Simulates Phospholipase C

231
Q

What does G12/13 do?

A

Activation= change in cytoskeleton

Regulation of cell cycle motility

232
Q

What does Gt do?

A

Transducin molecule of rods/cones in visual signals

233
Q

What makes cAMP?

A

Adenyl Cyclase

234
Q

What does Protein Kinase C do?

A

Change membrane structure
Regulate transcription
Regulate cell growth

235
Q

What two AAs can be glucogenic and ketogenic?

A

Isoleucine

Phenylalanine

236
Q

Explain cAMP signaling

A

Adenylyl cyclase activated by ATP->cAMP then activated Protein Kinase A and phosphorylation

237
Q

cAMP stimulatory ligands activate via __

cAMP inhibitiory ligands activate via__

A

Gs

Gi

238
Q

Explain phospholipase C protein kinase C signaling

A

Activated by Gq, causes Ca+ release from ER

239
Q

Receptor tyrosine kinase, Janus Kinases and Integral Guanyl Cyclase are also AKA ?

A

Guanylyl / guanylate cyclase receptors

Bind to signal molecule, carry out enzymatic function leading to activation of a specific signal pathway

240
Q

What gives the mosaic model it’s “mosaic” characteristic?

A

Bilayer has protein, carbs and cholesterols

241
Q

3 molecules that move by diffusion?

3 molecules that move by facilitated diffusion?

A

o2, co2, urea

Cl, BiCarb, glucose

242
Q

What 3 AAs are essential as infants/children?

A

Arginine
Cysteine
Tyrosine

243
Q

AA synthesis retrieves the C skeleton from what two places?

A

CAC

Glycolysis

244
Q

What does transferring AA from glutamate to pyruvate make?

What is the transaminase abbreviation?

A

Alanine
Alanine transaminase
SGPT

245
Q

Oxaloacetate is what kind of molecule?

A

Keto acid from CAC

246
Q

What happens when Oxaloacetate transanimates with glutamate?

What is the transaminase abbreviation?

A

Aspartate and an a-ketoglutarate
Catalyzed by aspartate transanimase
SGOT

247
Q

Where are transaniminases ALT and AST abundant?

A

Heart

Liver

248
Q

How is glutamine formed?

A

2nd amino group added to glutamate

249
Q

What has to happen to prepare for the Urea Cycle?

A

Ammonium + CO2 + H2O= Carbomyl phosphate

250
Q

In urea, what is made when Carbomyl phosphate is transferred to Ornithine?

A

Citrulline

251
Q

In step 2 of urea cylce, Citrulline + asparate =?

A

Agininosuccinate

252
Q

Where does a urea molecule get it’s N atom?

A

Aspartate

253
Q

What is cleaved in Step 3 of Urea Cycle and what is made?

A

Argninosuccinate = arginine and fumarate

254
Q

What happens in Urea Cycle step 4 when arginine is splite?

A

Urea

Ornithine

255
Q

Oxidative deanimation strips the amino group from which AA?

A

Glutamate

NAD is used by coenzyme

256
Q

What process takes place to convert an amino group to an ammonium ion?

A

Oxidative deamination

257
Q

Glycolysis = __ ATP
Oxid/Decarb= _ATP
CAC x 2= _ ATP

A

2 NADH-5, direct phosphorylation-2’, 7ATP
2NADH- 5 ATP
8NADH and 2 FADH2= 20ATP

258
Q

If phospotidylserine is on the outside of a cell for?

On the inside for?

A 
In= interncellular communication
Out= platelet activation for thrombin formation
259
Q

Bacteria Treponemia Pallidum produces Abs against what phosholipid?

A

Cardiolipin

260
Q

What does lipoprotein -thenolamine regulate?

Where is it secreted from?

A

Membrane curvature

VLDL

261
Q

Which lipoprotein is the major factor of surfactant?

A

-choline

262
Q

Which lipoprotein is used for guastaory purposes?

A

-linositol

263
Q

Where/how is IP3 made and what for?

A

-linositol is phosphorylated version of PIP2 which can be cleaved into IP3 for intracellular messaging

264
Q

How does cholesterol get stabilized in the lipid bilayer?

A

H bonding

Can der Wall forces

265
Q

Polyene antifungals ding to what?

A

Ergosterol

266
Q

Facilitated diffusion involves a carrier protein that has_____

A

Conformation changed by release of energy/phosphorylation from nucleotide moleucles

267
Q

CCB meds end w/ what suffix?

A

-dipine

268
Q

H2 blockers end with what suffix?

A

-tidine

269
Q

What psychiatric drug can be used to decrease aquaporin 2 channels?

A

Lithium

270
Q

3 stages of cell signaling?

A

Reception
Transduction
Response

271
Q

What are the 4 types of cell signaling?

A

Paracrine
Autocrine
Endocrine
Cell-to-cell

272
Q

What kind of signaling utilizes intracellular mediators?

A

Gap junctions

273
Q

How do signals pass into Group I intracellular receptor proteins?

A

Pass through by diffusion

274
Q

What type of receptor is used to transmit a message from one side of the cell to another?

A

Group II surface receptors

275
Q

Once inside a cell, what do steroid hormones bind to?

A

Cytoplasmic receptors

Nucleus receptors

276
Q

Steroid hormones that effect DNA synthesis are called ?

A

Genomic

277
Q

GPCR is AKA ?

A

Seven-transmembrane domain receptors

278
Q

All GPCRs rely on ? to convey external message to inside of cell?

A

Conformational change causing GDP->GTP

279
Q

What are the 3 different GPCR sub-units?

A

Alpha
Beta
Gamma

280
Q

Activation of phospholipase C is done via ?

A

a-Gq

281
Q

4 second messengers and their function?

A

cAMP- phosphorylation

DAG/IP3- phospholipase c cleaves membrane causing intracellular release of Ca

282
Q

3 benefits/results of second messengers?

A

Multiple membrane, Cytoplasmic, and Nuclear effects

283
Q

Soluble Receptor Associated Tyrosine Kinases include what 4?

A

Receptor tyrosine kinase
Janus kinases
Inegral guanyl cyclase

284
Q

What is the result of Jak-Stat ?

A

Binding in DNA causing expression of certain genes

285
Q

What do muscle contractions rely on?

A

Voltage gated Ca channels

286
Q

What is the predominant cardiac voltage gated channel?

A

L type

a-1 subunit w/ 6 trans-membrane alpha helices

287
Q

What is the B-subunit of voltage gated Ca channels?

A

Guanylate kinase

Catalyzes ATP + GMP causing regulation of a1-pore sensitivity causing VDCC to open by depolarization

288
Q

Epi can bind with what adrenergic receptors?

A

A1- Gq stimulate
A2- Gi inhib cAMP
B1- Gs stim cAMP
B2- Gs stim cAMP

289
Q

What is the main receptor in the heart?

A

B1

290
Q

Were are B1 receptors found

A

Heart

Kidney

291
Q

Where are B3 receptors found?

A

Fat cells

IPAP (212 decks)

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