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A&P 2: Endocrine Flashcards

1
Q

What are the mediators that are neurotransmitters and hormones?

A

Norepinephrine
Epinephrine
Oxytocin- Neuro: released throughout brain and expressed by neurons. Horm: released from pituitary gland to blood, acts on breast and uterine tissue

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2
Q

Difference between Endo and Exo

A

Endo: within; secretes hormones to interstitial fluid and blood (TSH)

Exo: secrete products to ducts that are released into cavities/organ lumen or skin surface (sweat,, oil, salivary, mammary, ceruminous, lacrimal)

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3
Q

Receptors are made of what?

Where are they located?

A

Cellular proteins

Cell surface or located inside cell

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4
Q

Define receptor down-regulation

A

Too much hormone is present

Receptor reduction = decreased sensitivity

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5
Q

Define receptor up-regulation

A

Not enough hormone is present/circulating

Increased receptors = increased sensitivity

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6
Q

Define endocrine action

A

Hormone distributed by blood to distant target cells (anterior pituitary releases TSH)

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7
Q

Define circulatory hormones

How long do they last?

A

(majority) pass from secretory cells to interstitial fluid into blood stream
Minutes to hours

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8
Q

Define local hormones

How long do they last?

A

Act on neighboring cells or same cell WITHOUT entering blood stream
Paracrine- act on neighboring cell
Autocrine- act on same cell

Quick/sudden onset

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9
Q

Lipid soluble hormones use what molecule for transport?

A

Transport proteins that were synthesized in liver

Makes hormone temporarily water soluble, retards passage of smaller molecules through kidney filter to urine

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10
Q

Why are lipid soluble hormones longevity important?

A

Provides reserve of hormone in blood stream

Free fraction- percentage of hormone not bound to transport protein and can bind w/ receptors immediatley

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11
Q

How is control of hormone secretion regulated?

A

NS
Chemical changes
Other hormones

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12
Q

What regulates the release of epinephrine?

A

NS impulses to adrenal medullae

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13
Q

What regulates the release of parathyroid hormone?

A

Blood Ca2+

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14
Q

What regulates the release of cortisol?

A

ACTH from anterior pituitary stimulates cortisol release from adrenal cortex

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15
Q

What are the 3 major groups of hormones?

A

Grouped based on chemical structure
Protein/polypeptide
Steroid
Tyrosine derivative

CAN be classified by solubility, gland and function

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16
Q

Majority of hormones fall into what chemical structure of hormones?

A

Protein and polypeptide

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17
Q

Structure and types of protein/polypeptide hormones?

A

Protein- more than 100 aa joined together

Polypeptides: 3-99 joined aa

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18
Q

What type of solubility do protein and polypeptide hormones have?

A

Water soluble
Can travel unbound in blood
Receptors on cell membranes

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19
Q

What two hormones are released from the posterior pituitary?

A

ADH- increases water reabsorption by kidneys

Oxytocin- stimulates uterine contraction and milk production

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20
Q

What protein hormone does the thyroid secrete?

A

Calcitonin- decreases serum Ca levels, deposits Ca into bones

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21
Q

What two hormones does the pancreas secrete?

A

Insulin- promotes glucose-> cell movement

Glucagon- synthesis and secretion of glucose from liver

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22
Q

What hormone does the parathyroid gland secrete

A

PTH- increases Ca absorption in gut and kidneys, breaks down bone matrix to increase serum Ca levels

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23
Q

What two hormones does the placenta secrete?

A

HCG- promotes growth of corpus luteum and secretion of estrogen/progesterone
Human somat: promotes fetal tissue development

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24
Q

What three hormones does the kidney secrete?

A

Renin: angiotensinogen to angiotensin
EPO- increases RBC production
Calcitriol- increase intestinal absorption of calcium

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25
What 2 hormones does the heart secrete?
ANP- increases Na excretion by kidney to reduce BP | BNP- reduces BP when heart is stretched too far
26
What hormone does the stomach secrete?
Gastrin- stimulates HCl secretion by parietal cells and growth of gastric mucous Secreted by G cells Stimulated by: protein ingestion, digestion, vagal stimulation
27
What two hormones does the small intestine secrete?
Secretin- stimulates pancreas to release bicarbonate | Cholecystokinin- stimulates gallbladder to release pancreatic enzymes
28
What hormones does the adipocytes secrete?
Leptin- inhibits appetite, stimulates thermogenesis | Adiponectin- reduces insulin release
29
What are steroid hormones derived from?
Cholesterol | Hence, lipid soluble
30
How do steroid hormones travel/bind to receptors?
Bound to transport proteins while in blood Freely pass through cell membranes Binds to receptors inside of cell
31
What two hormones do the adrenal cortex secrete?
Zona glomerulosa Cortisol: control metabolism and anti-inflammatory Aldosterone: Increases renal Na absorption, promotes K and H loss
32
What hormone do the testes secrete?
testosterone- secondary sex characteristics
33
Examples of Tyrosine Derivative Hormones
Thyroid hormones- T3, T4 Adrenal medullary hormones- (catecholamines), epi, norepi Prolactin Inhib Hormone- aka Dopamine
34
Tyrosine hormones from the hypothalamus
Prolactin inhibiting hormones | Water soluble
35
What part of the brain controls the Autonomic NS
Hypothalamus, through neural and hormonal
36
How does the hypothalamus connect to the pituitary gland?
Connected to POSTERIOR Pituitary by infundibular stalk
37
What two structures combine to make the infundibulum
Pars tuberalis- sheath from anterior pituitary | Infundibular stalk
38
Every hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus is transported to where?
Pituitary for storage or other hormone synthesis
39
Hypothalamus + pituitary gland have control over what 4 processes?
Growth regulation Development Metabolism Homeostasis
40
What signals does the hypothalamus respond to?
Signals from internal and external environment ``` Temp Hunger Satiety- feeling of being full/content BP Hormones Stress ```
41
What 3 daily rhythms does the hypothalamus control?
Melatonin secretion from pineal gland Cortisol secretion Body temp
42
Where is melatonin secreted from?
Pineal gland
43
Hypothalamic hormones have action where? What action do they have?
Anterior pituitary | Cause other hormones to by synthesized in ant. pit.
44
Function of hypothalamic releasing hormones
Stimulate release of Anterior Pituitary hormones
45
What are the 5 Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones
``` GHRH- growth hormone TRH- thyrotropin releasing CRH- corticotropin releasing GnRH- gonadotropin releasing PRH- prolactin releasing ```
46
What are the 2 Hypothalamic inhibiting hormones
Inhibit release of hormones from Ant. Pit. GHIH- growth hormone inhib. PIH- prolactin inhib
47
Growth hormone inhibiting hormones AKA | Prolactin inhibiting hormone AKA
GHIH- somatostatin | PIH- dopamine
48
How are hormones synthesized in hypothalamus sent to Anterior Pituitary?
Pituitary portal system (capillaries)
49
How are hormones synthesized in hypothalamus sent to Posterior Pituitary?
From hypothalamus to post. pit. to the infundibular stalk via AXONS
50
What are the 2 hormones synthesized in hypothalamus but stored in posterior pituitary?
Oxytocin | ADH
51
Where is the pituitary located?
Sella turcica of sphenoid bone
52
Anterior pituitary gland AKA | Posterior pituitary gland AKA
``` Ant= adenohypophysis, pars distalis Post= neurohypophysis, pars nervosa ```
53
What are the two parts of the Anterior Pituitary gland?
Pars distalis- glandular tissue | Pars tuberalis- partial coverage of infundibulum
54
What kind of hormones does the Anterior Pituitary make? Where do they effect?
Tropic hormones from 5 specific cell types | 4 of 5 effect other endocrine glands, exception: HGH, effects almost all tissues in body, no glands
55
What happens to hormones once they are synthesized in the anterior pituitary?
Released into venous circulation
56
What are the 5 tissue types of the Anterior Pituitary? | What hormones do they secrete?
``` Somatotrophs: HGH Thyrotrophs: TSH Gonadotrophs: FHS, LH Lactotrophs: PRL Corticotrophs: ACTH (corticotropin), MSH (melanocyte) ```
57
HGH from Ant. Pit. AKA
Somatotropin
58
Characteristics of Somatotropin
Most abundant Ant. Pit. hormone from somatotrophic cells (most abundant cell) Secreted in bursts, predominantly in first 2hrs of deep sleep
59
What is the main function of HGH
Promote synthesis and secretion of small protein hormones called Insulin-like Growth Factors (somatomedins)
60
Where are IGFs synthesized and secreted from?
Liver Skeletal muscle Cartilage Bones
61
Changes of development within the body are believed to be due to the effects of what hormones?
Insulin-like Growth Factors, not HGH
62
Function of IGFs
``` Increase protein synthesis (uptake of aa into cells) Decrease protein catabolism Childhood growth (muscle and bones) Enhance lipolysis (increases fatty acid use instead of glucose use so neurons can use glucose) ```
63
What is the most basic carbohydrate?
Glucose
64
What are IGFs role during hypoglycemia
Stimulates liver to release glucose via glycogenolysis (glycogen->glucose)
65
When will IGFs be predominantly produced and secreted?
Low blood sugar situations
66
What does hypoglycemia stimulate the release of and inhibit the release of?
Stim: GHRH Inhib: GHIH
67
What does hyperglycemia stimulate the release of and inhibit the release of?
Stim: GHIGH Inhib: GHRH
68
What happens to blood glucose regulation during hypoglycemia?
GHRH release stim GHIGH release inhib (hypothalamus) Ant. Pit: secretes hGH causing increased IGF concentration Carbohydrate metabolism and liver glycogenolysis increase blood sugar levels
69
What factors stimulate hGH secretion?
``` Hypoglycemia Sympathetic NS (stress, exercise) Deep sleep Decreased serum Fatty acids Increased serum aa Starvation/fasting Protein deficiency Increased levels of testosterone, estrogen or Ghrelin ```
70
What is Ghrelin?
Hormone released by stomach before eating
71
What factors inhibit hGH secretion?
``` Hyperglycemia Increased serum fatty acids Decreased serum aa Emotional deprivation Obesity Low T3/T4 hGH (neg feedback) GHIH Aging ```
72
What stimulates release of ACTH?
CRH from hypothalamus Stress Hypoglycemia Trauma
73
What does ACTH control?
Cortisol production Glucocorticoids Androgens produced in adrenal gland CORTEX
74
What controls the secretion of prolactin
``` PRH PIH (dopamine) ```
75
Prolactin itself is weak, so what does it work with for what end result?
``` Estrogen Progesterone Glucocorticoids HGH T4 Insulin Milk production in pregnancy ```
76
What causes the EJECTION of milk during pregnancy?
Oxytocin from posterior pit.
77
What happens to PRL levels during menstruation cycle?
Low estrogen and progesterone prior to menstruration INHIBITS PIH and STIMS prolactin secretion (breast tenderness) Rest of cycle, as estrogen increases, PIH increases, prolactin decreases
78
What stimulates release of FSH
GnRH from hypothalamus stimulates Ant. Pit. to secrete FSH
79
What effect does FSH have on female body?
Initiates follicle production | Ovarian follicular cell estrogen production
80
What effect does FSH have on male body?
Stimulates sperm cell production
81
How is FSH secretion inhibited?
``` Increased estrogen (females) Increased testosterone (males) ```
82
What stimulates for LH secretion?
GnRH from hypothalamus stimulates Ant. Pit. to release LH
83
What effect does LH have on female body?
Ovulation Formation of corpus luteum Secretion of progesterone from corpus luteum FSH + LH= Estrogen secretion by ovarian follicular cells
84
What effect does LH have on male body?
Production and secretion of testosterone
85
Define melanocyte stimulating hormones
Peptide hormones produced in skin, ant pituitary and parts of brain
86
What inhibits release of Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone?
Dopamine inhibits MSH release from Ant. Pit.
87
What does MSH do within human body?
Pigmentation of skin cells | Suppression of appetite
88
What stimulates the release of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone?
TRH from hypothalamus stimulates TSH release from Ant. Pit.
89
What inhibits release of TRH?
Increased T3/T4 | Inhibs TSH production too
90
Reduction of TRH and TSH causes suppression of what synthesis?
T3/T4
91
What are the two parts of the posterior pituitary?
Pars Nervosa- bulbar part | Infundibular stalk- connects to pituitary gland
92
What hormones does the posterior pituitary make?
None, storage only | Stores ADH and Oxytocin
93
What is normal urine output w/ ADH?
1-2L | w/out- 20L/day
94
What effect does ADH have on BP?
Increases BP by vasoconstriction of arterioles
95
ADH secreted depends on what 2 factors?
Blood osmotic pressure | Blood volume
96
4 causes of high osmotic pressure
Dehydration Hemorrhage Diarrhea Excessive sweating
97
Define osmotic pressure | Define osmoreceptor
Press: pressure solutes are causing in plasma Receptor: baroreceptor in hypothalamus for measuring osmotic pressure
98
What are the 3 action sites for ADH?
Kidneys Sudoriferous glands Vascular smooth muscle
99
What factors alter ADH secretion?
Pain Stress Trauma Anxiety Morphine Tranquilizers Anesthetics Nicotine
100
Suspected role of Oxytocin outside of pregnancy/milk ejection?
Ability to emotionally/socially bond w/ others
101
What stimulates TSH secretion?
TRH from hypthalamus
102
What causes synthesis of thyroid hormone?
TSH presence
103
What causes inhibition of TSH
Negative feedback to hypothalamus to stop/slow TRH which tells Ant. Pit. to slow TSH release
104
Anything that increases cellular energy demand with cause an increase in production of _____
T3 and T4
105
What is the largest "pure" endocrine gland?
Thyroid
106
How do the wings of the thyroid gland connect?
Isthmus, anterior to trachea
107
What is the 3rd lobe of the thyroid called that's found in 50% of people?
Pyramidal lobe
108
What are the functional units of the thyroid?
Follicles | Inside of follicle is called a colloid
109
What do parafollicular cells create?
Calcitonin | Made in thyroid, not A thyroid hormone
110
Characteristics of T4
Inactive thyroid hormone | More abundant, less potent
111
Characteristics of T3
Active form of thyroid hormone | Less abundant, more potent
112
Synthesis of T3 and T4
Watch and learn
113
Difference between TGB and TBG
TGB: thryoglobulin, glue that binds MIT, DIT, T3 and T4 TBG: thyroxine binding globulin, transport protein that carries T3/T4 to target cell after synthesis
114
What are the actions of T3/T4
``` Increase basal metabolic rate Stimulates synthesis of Na/K pumps Regulate metabolism (protein synth) Enhance catecholamine action Work w/ hGH and insulin to accelerate body growth (nervous/skeletal) ```
115
Increased basal metabolic rate causes metabolism of what 3 things?
carbs proteins lipids
116
Increased number of Na/K pumps has what end result?
Increased ATP production and consumption | Heat is byproduct and used by body
117
What effect do T3/T4 have on epi/norepi?
T3/4 upregulate beta adrenergic receptors | Explains why hyperthyroid PTs are tachy and hypertension
118
T3/T4 deficiency during childhood has what consequences?
Mental retardation | Stunted bone growth
119
Location of Parafollicular cells
Outside of follicular cells | Inside thyroid
120
Function of parafollicular cells
Synth/secrete calcitonin
121
What stimulates/inhibits release of Calcitonin
Stim: high Ca+ and HPO4 serum levels Inhib: low Ca+ and HPO4 serum levels
122
Define resorption
Using/losing a substance | Breakdown of bone matrix by osteoclast to increase plasma Ca+ levels
123
Define absorption/reabsorption
Process of gaining something | Osteoblast absorbing Ca+ from blood to build bone matrix
124
How does calcitonin regulate Ca levels?
Inhibits osteoclasts Increases osteoblasts Decrease Ca absorption in gut Increase Ca loss in urine
125
How does calcitonin increase Ca+ loss in urine?
Prevents cells in distal convoluted tubule from reabsorbing Ca
126
Where are parathyroid glands located?
ON thyroid gland
127
How many parathyroid glands are there? | What are their functional components?
``` 4 Principle cells (aka Chief cells) ```
128
What is the purpose of Principle cells?
Secrete PTH
129
What stimulates/inhibits PTH release?
Inhib: High serum Ca Stim: Low serum Ca
130
How does PTH regulate Ca levels?
Increase osteoclast Inhibits osteoblast Increase Ca absorption in gut Decrease Ca loss in urine
131
What are the two sections of Adrenal Glands
Cortex: large, peripherally located Medulla: small, centrally located
132
What stimulates Adrenal Cortex to make it's hormones?
Hypothalamus secretes CRH Ant Pit releases ACTH Impacts adrenal cortex
133
What 3 hormones are made in what zones of the adrenal cortex?
Glomerulus- mineralcorticoids Fasciculata- glucocorticoids Reticularis- androgens
134
What is secreted by Zona Glomerulosa and what function
Mineralcorticoids- aldosterone | Affects mineral homeostasis
135
Mineralcorticoids from Zona Glomerulosa promotes what two things?
Reabsorption of Na in kidneys | Promotes loss of K and H in urine
136
What stimulates the secretion of Aldosterone
Elevated K and H levels | Low BP
137
What inhibits secretion of aldosterone
Low K and H levels | High BP
138
What system stimulates aldosterone release?
RAAS
139
Steps of RAAS
Low BP sensed by kidneys Kidneys secrete renin Renin causes angiotensinogen->angiotensin-I Angiotensin-I goes to lungs where its split to Angiotensis-II by ACE
140
Where is angiotensinogen made?
Liver
141
How does Angiotensin-II increase BP
Stim aldosterone production Increases sympathetic NS Arteriolar constriction Release of ADH
142
What is secreted from Zona Fasciculata
Glucocorticoids- Cortisol Corticosterone Cortisone
143
What effects do gluccocorticoids have on the body?
Regain homeostasis after stress event
144
What functions do glucocorticoids have?
- Protein catabolism (all cells except liver) - Gluconeogensis (aa->glucose) - Lipolysis (shifts body to lipid catabolism) - Immune suppression (decreases eosinophils and atrophy of lymphatic tissue, decreases plasma cells) - Anti-inflammation(inhibs prostaglandin and leukotriene precursors, inhibs IL-2, proliferation of T cells, inibs release of histamine and serotonin and platelets) - Inhibits bone formation (dec Type I collagen, dec osteoblast, dec intestinal reabsorption of Ca)
145
What does the Zona Reticularis secrete? | What are these secretions later turned into?
Weak androgens: DHEA and DHT Testosterone Estrogen
146
Characteristics of DHEA
Weak androgenic effect Precursor for numerous hormones Androsternedione, testosterone, DHT, estrogen
147
Characteristics of Androstenedione
Weak androgenic effect | Converted to testosterone or estrogen (precursor for estradiol
148
Characteristics of DHT
More potent androgen than testosterone Made from conversion of testosterone Is active in tissues where testosterone is not
149
What type of cells make up the middle region of the adrenal gland (adrenal medulla)
Chromaffin Cells- adrenal medulla functional cells
150
What are the functions of Chromaffin cells?
Synthesize and secrete Epi and Norepi
151
What's more potent, epi or norepi?
norepi- precursor to epi | epi- more potent and abundant
152
Chromaffin cells are considered modified cells of what system?
Sympathetic ganglion of ANS
153
Sympathetic NS stimulates chromaffin cells through what nerves?
Splachnic nerves
154
Effects of catecholamines on the body?
Intensify Symapthetic NS Dilation- heart, brain, lungs, muscle Constriction- GI, kidneys, skin Liver and muscle conversion of glycogen to glucose
155
The pancreas is _% endocrine and _% exocrine
Endo- 5% | Exo- 95%
156
What part of the intestine does the pancreas rest?
Curve of duodenum
157
Where are the endocrine cells within the pancreas?
Middle of exocrine acini are the Islets of Langerhans
158
What are the 4 types of Islet cells in the pancreas?
A- secrete glucagon B- secrete insulin D- secrete somatostatin F- (aka PP cell) secrete pancreatic polypeptide
159
Function of glucagon
raise blood sugar levels Pancreatic receptor detect hypoglycemia and release glucagon Stims liver glycogenolysis Stims liver gluconeogenesis Stim lipolysis
160
What inhibits release of glucagon?
Negative feedback | increased serum glucose levels
161
Function of insulin
lowers blood glucose levels | Presence of food in small intestine triggers release of GDIP (aka GIP) which stims insulin release from pancreas
162
What are the 4 functions insulin does?
Glucose uptake in cells Stims glycolysis Stims gluconeogenesis Triglyceride/protein synthesis
163
What inhibits release of insulin?
Insulin decreases w/ decreased serum glucose levels
164
Function of somatostatin | AKA GHIH
Paracrine action inhibiting insulin and glucagon release Endocrine action inhibiting release of hGH
165
Function of pancreatic polypeptide
Inhibits somatostatin release Inhibits gallbladder contraction Inhibits bicarb secretion
166
Explain blood sugar during a fasted state
Hypoglycemia inhibits release of insulin Stimulates release of glucagon Glucagon stims hepatocyte conversion of glycogen->glucose (glycogenolysis)
167
Explain blood sugar during fed state
Hyperglycemia inhibits release of glucagon, stim release of insulin Stims cell uptake of glucose Speeds glucose->glycogen Lipogenesis
168
What are the 4 hormones synthesized and secreted by the ovaries?
``` Estrogen Progesterone Inhibin Relaxin Inhibin and relaxin only made/secreted in bulk during pregnancy ```
169
When estrogen, progesterone, LH and FSH combine they regulate what three things
Regulate menstrual cycle Maintain pregnancy Prepare mammary glands for lactation
170
What are the functions of inhibin and relaxin during pregnancy?
Inhibin: Inhibits FSH, deters follicle development Relaxin: Relaxes cervix and pubic symphysis cartilage to aid in delivery
171
What two hormones do the testes form?
Testosterone | Inhibin
172
3 functions of testosterone
Stims decent of testes before birth Regulates production of sperm Secondary sex characteristics
173
Functions of inhibin in males?
Inhibits FSH, spermatogenesis
174
Function and source of production of Cholecalciferol
Skin | modified to form Vit D
175
Four specific hormones released by Thymus
Thymosin Thymic humoral factor Thymic factor Thymopoietin
176
4 miscellaneous hormones released by liver?
IGF-1 Angiotensinogen- inc BP Thrombopoietin- stims platelet production Hepcidin- block release of Fe into body fluids
177
Source and function of Cholecystokinin
Secreted by I cells of small int. Stim by: fats and proteins (monoglycerides, fatty acids, small peptides, amino acids) Causes gallbladder contractions Slows gastric emptying Stims secretion of pancreatic enzymes, bicarb, exocrine pancreas and gallbladder growth Satiety*
178
Source and function of Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic Peptide (aka gastric inhibitory peptide)
Secreted by K cells of small intestines Stim by presence of glucose, fatty acids or aa Stimulates release of insulin Inhibits H+ ion secretion
179
Source and function of secretin
Secreted by S cells of small intestine Stimulated by presence of fatty acids, acidic contents Stimulates secretion of BiCarb from pancreas and gallbladder Inhibits gastrin effects
180
Source and function of Eicosanoids
Found in all body cells EXCEPT RBCs Paracrine/autocrine hormones in response to mechanical/chemical stimuli Prostaglandins- tons of effects Leukotrienes- WBC chemotaxis stimulation
181
Source and function of histamine
Synth in any tissue w/ mast cells and platelets Stimulated by trauma and immune response Contract smooth muscles (lungs, uterus, stomach) Lowers BP Stimulates gastric acid release Increase permeability in capillaries and post-cap venules
182
Source and function of serotonin
Synthesized in small intestine, brain and CNS Platelets will uptake free serotonin for storage Mood, anxiety, appetite, temp, eating/sex behavior Body and gastro movement Can be Vasoconstrictor/dilator
183
What are the two types of stress
Eustress | Distress
184
What is the process of the body counteracting stress called | What controls this process?
General Adaptation Syndrome | Hypothalamus
185
What are the 3 phases of stress response
Alarm Resistance Exhaustion
186
Define functional medicine
Addresses root cause of disease Treats whole system Still considered "alternative medicine"
187
Aging endocrine system has what effects on the body
dec hGH= atrophy dec T3/T4= dec metabolism, inc fat, hypothyroidism dec insulin, dec receptor sensitivity= hyperglycemia dec ovary size, dec estrogen= osteoperosis, atherosclerosis, hyperlipidemia dec testes size= same amount of sperm, altered morphology and motility Inc TRH/TSH Inc PTH= dec calcitonin, dec calcitriol

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