A&P 1: Human Body Orientation Flashcards
Physiology
concerns the function of the body; how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities
Anatomy
studies the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another
Gross (macroscopic) anatomy
study of large body structures visible to the naked eye (e.g heart, lungs, kidneys)
Regional anatomy
all the structures (muscles, bones, blood vessels, nerves, etc) in a particular region of the body are examined at the same time
Systemic anatomy
body structure is studied system by system
Surface anatomy
study of internal structures as they related to the overlying skin surface
Microscopic anatomy
deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye
Cytology
considers the cells of the body
Histology
study of tissues
Developmental anatomy
traces structural change that occur in the body throughout the life span
Embryology
subdivision of developmental anatomy; concerns developmental changes that occur before birth
Renal physiology
concerns kidney function and urine production
Neurophysiology
explains the workings of the nervous system
Cardiovascular physiology
examines the operation of the heart and blood vessels
Principle of Complementarity of Structure & Function
what a structure can do depends on its specific form
Chemical level
simplest level of the structural hierarchy of the human body (atoms, molecules etc)
Cellular level
level of structural hierarchy of human body after chemical level, made up of the smallest units of living things
Tissue level
level of human structural hierarchy that groups similar cells into a common function
Organ level
extremely complex functions are possible; made up of discrete structure compose of at least 2 tissue types (4 is more common) that performs a specific function for the body
Organ system level
organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose; includes CV, integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive
Organismal level
represents the sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive
Maintaining boundaries
every living organism must do this so that its internal environment remains distinct from the external environment; i.e. skin
Movement
includes the activities promoted by the muscular system, such as propelling ourselves from one place to another by running or swimming, and manipulating the external environment with our nimble fingers
Contractility
on the cellular level, the muscle cell’s ability to move by shortening
Responsiveness (excitability)
ability to sense changes (which serve as stimuli) in the environment and then respond to them
Digestion
breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood
Metabolism
broad term that includes all chemical reactions that occur within the body cells; includes breaking down substances into their simpler building blocks (catabolism), synthesizing more complex cellular structure from simpler substances (anabolism), and using nutrients and oxygen to produce ATP (via cellular respiration)
Excretion
process of removing wastes from the body
Reproduction
occurs at the cellular and organismal level; at cellular level - body growth and repair; at organismal level - major task; directly responsible for producing offspring; function regulated by endocrine system
Growth
increase in size of a body part or the organism as a whole; usually accomplished by increasing the number of cells
Nutrients
taken in via the diet, contain the chemical substances used for energy and cell building
Oxygen
all the nutrients in the world are useless unless this element is available; makes up 20% of the air; cooperative effects of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems make this available to the blood and body cells
Water
60-80% of our body weight; single most abundant chemical substance in the body
Normal body temperature
if chemical reactions are to continue at life-sustaining rates, this must be maintained; metabolic reactions slow down under this, speed up above this, proteins denature; at either extreme, death occurs
Atmospheric pressure
force that air exerts on the surface of the body
Homeostasis
termed by Walter Cannon, an American physiologist of the early 20th century; speaks to the wisdom of the body; describes the body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously
Receptor
some type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes (stimuli) by sending information (input) to the control center; flows from this to the control center along the afferent pathway
Variable
all homeostatic control mechanisms are processes involving at least 3 components that work together (receptor, control center, effector)
Control center
determines the set point (level or range at which a variable is to be maintained); also analyzes the input it receives and determines the appropriate response
Effector
provides the means for the control center’s response (output) to the stimulus
Negative feedback mechanisms
most homeostatic control mechanisms; output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity; returns to ideal value
Positive feedback mechanisms
result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated; variable deviates further and further from its original value/range
Homeostatic imbalance
most disease can be regarded as a disturbance in homeostasis
Anatomical position
anatomical reference point is a standard body position; body is erect with feet slightly apart, palms forward, thumbs point away from body
Directional terms
allow us to explain where one body structure is in relation to another
Axial part
makes up the main axis of our body, includes the head, neck, and trunk
Appendicular part
consists of the appendages (limbs) which are attached to the body’s axis
Regional terms
used to designate specific areas within these major body divisions
Sagittal plane
vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts
Median plane
a sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline; AKA midsagittal plane
Parasagittal planes
all other sagittal planes, offset from the midline
Frontal planes
lie vertically; divide the body into anterior and posterior parts; AKA coronal plane
Transverse plane
horizontal plane running from right to left, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts; section also called a cross section
Oblique sections
cuts made diagonally between the horizontal and vertical planes; seldom used because confusing and difficult to interpret
Dorsal body cavity
protects the fragile nervous system organs; 2 subdivisions - cranial cavity & vertebral (spinal) cavity
Cranial cavity
in the skull, encases the brain
Vertebral (spinal) cavity
runs through the bony vertebral column, encloses the delicate spinal cord
Ventral body cavity
more anterior and larger of the closed body cavities; 2 subdivisions - thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
Thoracic cavity
superior subdivision of the ventral body cavity; surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest; further subdivided into lateral pleural cavities and the medial mediastinum
Viscera
ventral body cavity houses internal organs collectively called this
Pleural cavities
subdivision of the thoracic cavity; each one envelops a lung
Mediastinum
subdivision of the thoracic cavity; contains the pericardial cavity
Pericardial cavity
encloses the heart, surrounds the remaining thoracic organs (esophagus, trachea, and others)
Abdominopelvic cavity
thoracic cavity is separated from this more inferior cavity by the diaphragm
Abdominal cavity
superior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity; contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs
X ray (radiograph)
nonsurgical means to extract info from within a living body; directs electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength at the body; produces a shadowy negative image of internal structures
Pelvic cavity
inferior part of the abdominopelvic cavity; lies in the bony pelvis, contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs, and the rectum
Computed tomography (CT; formerly CAT, computerized axial tomography)
uses a refined version of X-ray equipment; provides detailed,cross-sectional picture of each body region scanned
Xenon CT
CT brain scan enhanced with radioactive xenon as to quickly trace blood flow
Dynamic spatial reconstruction (DSR)
uses ultrafast CT scanners to provide 3D images of body organs from any angle, and scrutinize their movements and changes in their internal volumes at normal speed, in slow motion, and at a specific moment; greatest value has been to visualize the heart beating and blood flowing through blood vessels; allows clinicians to evaluate heart defects, constricted or blocked vessels, and the status of coronary bypass grafts
Digital subtraction angiography (DSA)
computer-assisted X-ray technique which provides an unobstructed view of small arteries; often used to identify blockages
Positron emission tomography (PET)
excels in observing metabolic processes
Sonography (ultrasound imaging)
distinct advantages over other approaches - inexpensive equipment, safer forms of radiation; body probed with sound waves, cause echoes when reflected and scattered by body tissues; of little value when looking for air-filled structures (lungs) or those surrounded by bone (brain, spinal cord)
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
produces high-contrast images of our soft tissues (area in which X-rays and CT scans are weak); maps the body’s content of hydrogen, most of which is in water; dense structures do not show at all
Bloodless MRIs
currently being tested in animals; measure water flow instead of blood flow
Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)
maps the distribution of elements other than hydrogen to reveal more about how disease changes body chemistry
Functional MRI
tracks blood flow into the brain in real time; does not require injection of tracers, can pinpoint much smaller areas than PET
M2A Swallowable Imaging Capsule
tiny camera that a patient swallows like a pill, then excretes normally 8-72 hours later; detects (small) intestinal problems by beaming color images to a data recorder worn on a belt
Serosa
thin, double-layered membrane that covers the walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains
Parietal serosa
part of the membrane lining the cavity walls; folds in on itself to form the visceral serosa
Visceral serosa
covers the organs in the ventral body cavity
Serous fluid
serous membranes are separated by this thin layer of lubricating fluid, which is secreted by both membranes
Abdominopelvic quadrants
right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), & left lower quadrant (LLQ)
Umbilical region
centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus (navel)
Epigastric region
located superior to the umbilical region (“upon [the] belly”)
Hypogastric (pubic) region
located inferior to the umbilical region
Right/left iliac (inguinal) regions
located lateral to the hypogastric region (references the superior part of the hip bone)
Right/left lumbar regions
lateral to the umbilical region (“loin”)
Right/left hypochondriac regions
lateral to the epigastric region and deep to the ribs (“cartilage”)
