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Anatomy and Phyisology > special senses > Flashcards

special senses Flashcards

1
Q

the extrinsic eye muscles

A

four recti muscles (superior, inferior, lateral, and medial), and two oblique muscles (superior and inferior)

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2
Q

where do the extrinsic eye muscles originate from?

A

the common tendinous ring

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3
Q

structures within the eye surface

A

palpebral fissure, lateral and medial commissures, lacrimal caruncle, sclera, and pupil

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4
Q

internal eye structures

A

vascular layer, inner layer, blindspot, anterior and posterior poles, iris, cornea, ciliary body, ciliary zonule, and macula lutea

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5
Q

palpebral fissure

A

the area between the open eyelids

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6
Q

lateral commissure

A

the corner of the eye when the eyelids meet at the lateral side

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7
Q

medial commissure

A

the corner of the eye where the eyelids meet at the medial side

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8
Q

lacrimal caruncle

A

the small, pink, globular spot at the inner corner of the eye; contains oil and sweat glands

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9
Q

sclera

A

the white coating of the eye; this is a tough, fibrous CT that extends from the cornea to the optic nerve at the back of the eye

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10
Q

what fibres are found in the sclera

A

elastic and collagen

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11
Q

pupil

A

centre of eye that allows light to enter; diameter is controlled by the smooth muscle of the iris

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12
Q

conjunctiva

A

a mucus membrane covering the sclera; this area is quite suspeticle to infection

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13
Q

the lacrimal apparatus

A

the tear system that is a group of glands, sacs, and ducts that make, secrete, and drain away tears

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14
Q

what is the function of tears

A

they work to hydrate, protect, and nourish the surface of the eye

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15
Q

another name for tears

A

lacrimal fluid

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16
Q

what are tears composed of?

A

mostly water and saline (salt), but also mucus, antibodies, and lysozyme

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17
Q

lysozyme

A

an enzyme that destroys bacteria and is found in tears

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18
Q

what are mucins?

A

a glycoprotein that acts as a lubricant to help the aqueous layer to spread evenly across the eye

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19
Q

what are mucins secreted by?

A

goblet cells

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20
Q

fibrous layer of the eye

A

outermost layer of the eye and includes the sclera and the cornea; sclera is the 5/6 and cornea is the 1/6

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21
Q

vascular layer of the eye

A

the middle layer which is mostly composed of the choroid, ciliary body, ciliary zonules and the iris

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22
Q

another name for the vascular layer of the eye

A

uveal

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23
Q

2 layers of the inner layer of the eye

A

the outer pigmented area and the inner neural layer

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24
Q

choroid

A

a darker layer of highly vascularised CT that provides a blood supply to the eyeball; also functions to absorb light to create more detailed vision; found in the middle layer

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25
Q

the inner layer of the eye

A

2 layers that contains the nervous tissue responsible for photoreception; this layer only exists in the posterior 5/6

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26
Q

2 other names for the inner layer of the eye

A

the retina or the neural tunic

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27
Q

blindspot of the eye

A

the point where your optic nerves and central vessels converge to exit the eye and into your brain; here there are no light sensitive cells that can detect light rays, so your retina cannot see this part

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28
Q

another name for the blindpsot

A

the optic disc

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29
Q

anterior pole

A

the front of the eye where light enters; composed of the iris and the cornea

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30
Q

posterior pole

A

the part of the eye where light directly impacts the retina; where these is a high concentration of cones

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31
Q

iris

A

the coloured part of the eye that contains smooth muscle components that contracts or relaxes to change the diameter of the pupil; also contains elastic fibres

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32
Q

anatomy of the iris

A

contains elastic fibres and smooth muscle

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33
Q

cornea

A

bulge part of the anterior eye that is transparent; it allows light to enter, and along with the lens, it focuses light onto the retina; also contains Na pumps

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34
Q

anatomy of the cornea

A

stratified squamous epithelium and high concentration of nervous tissue

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35
Q

ciliary body

A

a muscular structure whose contraction causes the lens to take a more rounded shape and this is supported by the ciliary zonule

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36
Q

ciliary zonule

A

fine ligaments and fibres that attach the ciliary body to the lens and help to control contraction and maximise how light hits the retina

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37
Q

macula lutea

A

part of the retina that is responsible for sharp, detailed central vision; it contains a very high concentration of cones; located in the posterior pole

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38
Q

aqueous humour

A

clear fluid with the composition of blood plasma without blood cells; found in the anterior portion of the eye

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39
Q

vitreous humour

A

gel like substance in the posterior portion of the eye that helps support the lens and shape of the eye through creating pressure

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40
Q

similarities between rods and cones

A

both are photoreceptors and found in the innermost surface of the retina; both also contain photopigments but their specific types differ

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41
Q

rods

A

responsible for vision at low light levels, have low spatial acuity, and are not involved in colour

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42
Q

photopigment in rods

A

rhodopsin

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43
Q

spatial acuity

A

The ability to discriminate 2 stimuli close in space

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44
Q

cones

A

are active at higher levels, have high spatial acuity, and are involved in colour vision

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45
Q

photopigment in cones

A

Iodopsin

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46
Q

bipolar cell

A

cell in the retina that function to connect the photoreceptors to the retinal ganglion cell

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47
Q

how do bipolar cells work?

A

photoreceptors will change their membrane potential when stimulated by light energy, in which this alters the amount of neurotransmitter released onto bipolar cells; these cells will then connect to a retinal ganglion cell

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48
Q

where are ganglion cells located?

A

in the ganglion cell layer of the retina

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49
Q

retinal ganglion cells

A

these are a type of neuron that connect with photoreceptors via bipolar cells; they function to project retinal information to the rest of the brain

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50
Q

how do retinal ganglion cells transmit information to the brain?

A

their axons converge at the optic disc to form the optic nerve and eventually travel to the primary auditory centre in the brain

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51
Q

rhodopsin

A

the light receptor in rod photoreceptor cells of the retina that initiate scotopic vision

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52
Q

scoptic vision

A

night vision and is initiated by rods

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53
Q

photopic vision

A

vision under well-lit conditions and is initiated by cones

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54
Q

retinal

A

cofactor in an opsin molecule that undergoes a biochemical change when struck by a photon; it is a vitamin A debris molecule

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55
Q

two shapes of retinal

A

all-trans and 11-cis

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56
Q

phototransduction

A

the process by which light is converted into electrical signals by the retinal, travelling through the retinal network leading to the activation of ganglion cells which transmit information to the brain

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57
Q

what is phototransduction initiated by?

A

rods and cones

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58
Q

emmetropic, myopic, and hyperopic terms

A

all refer to refractive states of how light is focused onto the retina

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59
Q

emmetropic

A

these eyes are just the right length to allow light to be focused onto the retina to create clear, crispy vision

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60
Q

myoptic

A

these eyes are slightly too long, causing light to focus in front of the retina rather than directly on it; these individuals are nearsighted

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61
Q

what lens are used for myopic vision?

A

concave

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62
Q

what lens are used for hyperopic vision?

A

convex

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63
Q

what vision is nearsighted?

A

myoptic; causes distant objects to appear blurry

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64
Q

hyperopic

A

these eyes are a little too short, causing light to focus behind the retina; these individuals are farsighted

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65
Q

what vision is farsighted?

A

hyperopic; causes near objects to appear blurry

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66
Q

what is the olfactory epithelium?

A

an area that is responsible for transmitting odor information to the olfactory bulb in the brain

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67
Q

what are the three layers in the olfactory epithelium?

A

mucus membrane, columnar epithelium, and basement membrane (cilia also present here)

68
Q

what is the function of mucus in the olfactory epithelium?

A

it traps and dissolves odorant molecules, allowing them to bind to olfactory receptors

69
Q

cells found in the olfactory epithelium

A

olfactory receptor cells and basal cells (mitral cells located above but not part of epithelium)

70
Q

where do gustatory sensory axons pass through?

A

the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone

71
Q

what do gustatory sensory cells synpase with?

A

mitral cells

72
Q

what cells merge together to form the olfactory nerve?

A

the mitral cells

73
Q

typical arrangement of a taste bud

A

they are located within the papillae of the tongue; also contain taste pores, gusatory hairs, basal cells, and gustatory receptor cells

74
Q

3 cranial nerves associated with taste

A

facial, vagus, and glossopharyngeal

75
Q

what are basal cells?

A

stem cells

76
Q

the five flavours

A

sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami

77
Q

external auditory canal

A

sound waves are directed to here and enter the skull through the temporal bone; is composed of cartilage and bone covered by skin

78
Q

lobule

A

the fleshly lower part of the auricle; only parts that contains no cartilage and instead it is made of areolar and adipose tissue

79
Q

tympanic membrane

A

separates the outer ear from the middle ear; when sound waves reach here they cause it to viberate and these vibrations are transferred to the tiny bones in the middle ear

80
Q

function of the bones in the middle ear

A

to transfer the vibrating signals to the inner ear

81
Q

another name for tympanic membrane

A

ear drum

82
Q

three layers of the tympanic membrane

A

inner mucous membrane, middle fibrous layer, and outer cutaneous layer

83
Q

malleus

A

bone of the ear that attaches to and moves with the tympanic membrane

84
Q

incus

A

bone of the ear that receives vibrations from the malleus and transmits them to the stapes

85
Q

stapes

A

bone of the ear that is the innermost and connects to the vestibular foramen; acts as the final chain in transmitting impulses from the external ear to the inner ear

86
Q

smallest bone in the body

A

stapes

87
Q

what are the ear bones called?

A

ossicles

88
Q

what are bones composed of?

A

ground substance is hydroxyapatite (phosphorus and calcium), ECM is collagen and elastic fibres, and cells are osteoclasts, blasts, and cytes

89
Q

cochlea

A

a fluid-filled, spiral shaped cavity found in the inner ear that plays a role in hearing and converts auditory signals to neural impulses

90
Q

organ of corti

A

located within the cochlea of the inner ear and is responsible for converting sound vibrations into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain; contains the basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane

91
Q

auditory transduction

A

transmitting sound vibrations into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain; cochlea is responsible for this

92
Q

what cells make up the organ of corti?

A

sensory cells (hair cells) and supporting cells

93
Q

similarities between semicircular canals and otolith organs

A

both are apart of the vestibular system that is located in the inner ear, and both play essential roles in maintaining balance and detecting head movements

94
Q

semicircular canals

A

these detect rotational movement of the head, allow us to perceive rotational acceleration, and maintain dynamic balance; contains three semicircular canals

95
Q

otolith organs

A

these detect linear acceleration, head position relative to gravity, and allow us to maintain static balance; contains two otolith organs

96
Q

what special senses are chemical stimuli?

A

taste and smell

97
Q

protein complex found in rods

A

retinal and opsin

98
Q

how many alpha-helixes in opsin

A

6

99
Q

what happens to photoreceptors when light reaches the retinal molecule?

A

retinal changes its configuration, causing opsin to also change its configuration

100
Q

retinal in the presence of light

A

takes the all-trans shape

101
Q

retinal in the absence of light

A

takes the 11-cis retinal shape

102
Q

what is the G protein called in the occipital pathway?

A

transducin

103
Q

what does the G protein in the visual pathway attach to?

A

transducin will diffuse across the cell membrane and attach to PDE

104
Q

PDE

A

phosphodiesterase

105
Q

what does PDE do?

A

converts cGMP into GMP in the visual pathway

106
Q

what happens when cGMP levels fall

A

cGMP-gated cation channels close, resulting in hyperpolarisation

107
Q

dark current

A

occurs when a depolarised state is created by the binding of cGMP to CNG channels, keeping them open

108
Q

what is also called the organ of smell?

A

the olfactory epithelium

109
Q

where is the olfactory epithelium located?

A

in the superior nasal cavity; allows for direct contact with the air passing through here

110
Q

what enzyme does the G protein bind to in the gustatory pathway?

A

adenylate cyclase

111
Q

function of adenylate cyclase

A

converts ATP to cAMP

112
Q

function of cAMP

A

it opens up a cation channel in the gustatory pathway, allowing for an influx of Na and Ca, causing a depolarisation and then an action potential

113
Q

frequency

A

the amount of waves per second; this determines the pitch

114
Q

what determines the pitch?

A

frequency

115
Q

amplitude

A

the difference in pressure for sound waves; this determine loudness of sound

116
Q

what determines the loudness of sound?

A

amplitude

117
Q

where is sound transformed to liquid?

A

in the cochlea

118
Q

what is the vestibular system associated with?

A

balance

119
Q

visual pathway synapses two subtypes

A

nasal and temporal sides

120
Q

nasal side visual pathway

A

the first order neuron decussates before it synapses with the thalamus; from here the second order neuron synapses in the cerebral cortex in the occipital lobe

121
Q

temporal side visual pathway

A

the first order neuron synapses in the thalamus; from there it travels to the occipital lobe in the cerebral cortex; no decussation occurs

122
Q

olfaction sensory pathway

A

first order neuron is the olfactory receptor cell which synapses with the second order mitral cell; this merges into the olfactory nerve which travels directly to the primary olfactory area in the cerebral cortex

123
Q

unique features of the olfactory sensory pathway

A

no decussation and no synapse in the thalamus

124
Q

taste sensory pathway

A

taste stimulus from the gustatory receptor cell (first order neuron) will synapse with the second order neuron in the gracile area of the medulla; this will synapse with the third order neuron in the thalamus which then travels to the primary gustatory area in the cerebral cortex; no decussation occurs

125
Q

how many auditory sensory pathways are there?

A

3

126
Q

what are areas of synapse in the visual pathway

A

thalamus and the cerebral cortex (decussation occurs in nasal side before the thalamus)

127
Q

what are differences in the auditory visual pathway

A

neurons can either not decussate, can decussate and take two pathways, and can synapse in very inferior pons, decussate and travel straight to the inferior colliculus

128
Q

nerve associated with the auditory system

A

the vestibulocochlear nerve

129
Q

where do synapses occur in the auditory pathway?

A

the pons (twice usually), the inferior colliculus and the thalamus

130
Q

2 sides in the cochlea

A

the scala vestibuli and the scala tympani

131
Q

basilar membrane

A

receives auditory vibrations from the perilymph travelling through the cochlea and from this is determines frequency and amplitude which is transferred to the vestibulocochlear nerve

132
Q

tectorial membrane

A

associated with the organ of corti and is a stable structure that helps with causing the hair cells to bend, creating action potentials for sound

133
Q

how are action potentials created in the semicircular canals?

A

the canal rotates, but the fluid stays near the bottom, creating a force that bends the hair cells, creating an action potential

134
Q

two parts of otolith organ

A

saccule and utricle

135
Q

saccule

A

part of the otolith and determines vertical motion like jumping or being in an elevator

136
Q

utricle

A

part of the otolith and determines horizontal motion like taking off in a plane

137
Q

what special senses do not decussate

A

auditory sometimes, taste always, olfaction, and visual sometimes (temporal side)

138
Q

what pathway decussates in the visual sense?

A

the nasal side

139
Q

first and second portions of the cochlea

A

scala vestibuli then scala tympani

140
Q

what is the scala tympani in contact with

A

the basilar membrane

141
Q

perilymph

A

ECF located within the inner ear

142
Q

two sides lining the organ of corti

A

the basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane

143
Q

what side of the organ of corti is stationary

A

the tectorial membrane

144
Q

three different axes for semicircular canals

A

shaking yes, shaking no, and tipping shoulders to ears

145
Q

what are hair cells attached to in the semicircular canals?

A

ampula wall; in these structures are also stereocilia and support cells

146
Q

anatomy of otolith organs

A

sheets of hair cells with CaCO3 embedded in gel at the tips of stereocilia

147
Q

where do the extrinsic muscles of the eye attach to?

A

the sclera; one of the rare cases where the muscles do not attach to bone

148
Q

order of flow for the lacrimal apparatus

A

the lacrimal gland will secrete tears, this will cross the conjunctiva to the lacrimal punctum, the lacrimal canaliculus, the lacrimal sac and then into the nasolacrimal duct

149
Q

where do tears terminate?

A

the inferior meatus of the nasal cavity

150
Q

where in the eye are Na pumps found?

A

the cornea

151
Q

what is in contact with the choroid?

A

the pigmented inner layer

152
Q

ora serrata

A

the serrated junction between the choroid and the ciliary body

153
Q

fovea centralis

A

similar to the macula lutea and is a high concentration of cones in the posterior pole of the eye where visual acuity is the highest

154
Q

where in photoreceptors are the pigments?

A

the outer segments and this area is embedded within the retina

155
Q

do you have more rods or cones?

A

rods

156
Q

why are no action potentials created in the dark

A

the depolarization causes a constant release of neurotransmitter, causing inhibitory postsynaptic potential in the bipolar cell and therefore no action potential along the optic nerve

157
Q

how are action potentials created in the light?

A

cGMP channels are closed, causing a hyperpolarization which causes no release of neurotransmitter; this cause the bipolar cells to depolarize and for an action potential to be created

158
Q

what is the G-protein called in the olfactory pathway?

A

golf

159
Q

G protein for bitter, sweet, and umami

A

gustducin

160
Q

what does gustducin bid to

A

phospholipase C

161
Q

what does phospholipase C do?

A

causes the IP3 gated calcium channel to open, leading to an influx of calcium and an action potential

162
Q

sensory pathway for salty and sour

A

the excess of Na+ and H+ ions move in through channels in the membrane of the taste receptors and this causing a depolarization of the membrane and a release of neurotransmitter

163
Q

pigmented layer

A

has photoreceptors embedded in it, and is similar to the vascular middle layer

164
Q

bleaching on the pigment

A

light absorption by rhodopsin triggers a series of steps in which retinal changes from (from 11-cis to all-trans) and eventually releases from opsin

165
Q

regeneration of the pigment

A

enzymes slowly convert all-trans retinal back to 11-cis in the pigmented epithelium and this requires ATP

166
Q
A

Anatomy and Phyisology (9 decks)

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