HLTH module 2 review Flashcards
elderly and obese water content
have a lower than normal proportion of water in their bodies
effects of prolonged edema
it interferes with venous return, arterial circulation, and cell function
where is edema the most severe?
in areas affected by gravity like the butt, ankles or feet
hypervolemia
increased BV and is associated with renal failure, pregnancy, excessive fluids, and CHF
4 causes of edema
increased capillary hydrostatic pressure, loss of plasma proteins in vessels, obstruction of lymphatic circulation, and increased capillary permeability
causes of loss of plasma proteins in the vessels
may be due to kidney disease, malabsorption or malnutrition, or liver disease
what can varicose veins lead to?
skin breakdown, fatigue, or varicose ulcers
pulse during edema
slow pulse and high BP
pulse during dehydration
rapid, weak pulse but low BP
what do fluid losses first effect?
the extracellular compartments
who are most susceptible to damaging effects of fluid loss?
infants and elderly due to smaller fluid reserves
hypotonic dehydration
refers to a loss of more solutes than fluid
hypertonic dehydration
refers to a loss of more fluid than solutes
body compensations for dehydration
increasing thirst, increasing HR, constricting vessels, and concentrating urine
third-spacing meaning
refers to a situation in which fluid shifts out of the blood into a body cavity or tissue where it is no longer available as circulating fluid
sodium importance
is significant for osmotic pressure, nerve conduction, and muscle contraction
hyponatremia signs
anorexia, nausea, cramps, fatigue, lethargy, muscle weakness, headache, confusion, seizures, and decreased BP
hypernatremia signs
thirst, weakness, lethargy, agitation, edema, and elevated BP
potassium and acid levels
acidosis shifts K+ out of cell and alkalosis shifts it into the cells; it is cotransported with H+
most significant role of K+
heart contractions
hypokalemia signs
cardiac dysrhythmias, muscle weakness, parenthesis, decreased appetite, shallow respirations (due to weak muscles), and increased urine output
hyperkalemia signs
cardiac dysrhythmias, muscle weakness, fatigue, nausea, and parenthesis
hyper vs hypokalemia on the ECG
hypokalemia leads to prolonged repolarization
role of vitamin D for calcium
it promotes the movement of Ca+ from the bones and intestines into the blood
calcium and phosphate relationship
is opposite, ex. is Ca+ is high the P is low
alkalosis and Ca+
decreases the number of free Ca+ in the blood, causing hypocalcemia
hypocalcemia signs
muscle twitching, hyperactive reflexes, Chvostek sign, Trousseau sign, obstructed airways, parentheses, abdominal pain, weak heart contractions, and arrhythmias
Chvostek sign
associated with hypocalcemia and is twitching of the lips and face
Trousseau sign
blood circulation is cut off to the hand and is associated with hypocalcemia
hypercalcemia signs
muscle weakness, increased urine output, increased cardiac contractions, spontaneous fractures, and kidney stones
hypomagnesemia signs
insomnia, tremors, neuromuscular hyperirritability, personality changes, and increased HR with arrhythmias
hypermagnesemia signs
depressed neuromuscular function, decreased reflexes, lethargy, and cardiac arrhythmias
hypophosphatemia signs
tremors, weak reflexes, confusion, parenthesis, and difficulty swallowing
hyperphosphatemia signs
same as hypocalcemia (muscle twitching, hyperactive reflexes, Chvostek sign, Trousseau sign, obstructed airways, parentheses, abdominal pain, weak heart contractions, and arrhythmias)
hyperchloremia signs
edema and weight gain
hypochloremia signs
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle twitching, and confusion
why does the body lead more towards an acidosis state?
due to the production of CO2, lactic acid, ketones, sulfides, and phosphates
buffer
combination of a weak acid and its alkaline salt
bicarbonate to carbonic acid ratio
20:1
when is it considered to be compensated acidosis or alkalosis
if the ratio of bicarbonate to carbonic acid is maintained at 20 : 1 and serum pH is normal
causes of respiratory acidosis
airway obstruction, pulmonary disease such as emphysema, and use of opiates
causes of metabolic acidosis
diarrhea causing loss of bicarbonate or renal failure
effects of acidosis
headache, lethargy, confusion, and weakness
causes of respiratory alkalosis
hyperventilation or aspirin overdose
causes of metabolic alkalosis
vomiting, hypokalemia, or excessive ingestion of antacids
effects of alkalosis
restlessness, muscle twitching, tetany, seizures, and coma
hemiplegia
paralysis on one side of the body
paraplegia
paralysis of the lower half of the body
quadriplegia
paralysis of the trunk and all four limbs
diplegia
symmetrical paralysis anywhere in the body
how fast can loss of muscle progress with immobility?
up to 12% each week
do flexor or extensor muscles atrophy more with immobility?
extensor muscles
muscle changes with immoblity
extensor muscles atrophy, contractures may develop, fibrous tissue replaces muscle cells, and tendons and ligaments loose elasticity and shorten
bedsores name
decubitus ulcers
areas of the skin that are sensitive to breakdown during immobility
bony areas with little fat covering them like the hip, elbows, knee, sacrum; this commonly leads to ischemia and necrosis of the tissue
effects on the heart during short-term immobilization
increased heart rate and SV due to blood pooling in the trunk, near the heart and lungs
effects on the heart during long-term immobilization
venous return and SV are reduced; orthostatic hypotension may also develop
orthostatic hypotension
occurs with decreased venous return and SV are signs are dizziness, fainting, pallor, sweating, and rapid pulse when changing body position
why are ulcers, necrosis and infection common during immobilization?
due to reduced capillary exchange of nutrients that results from pooling of blood in areas
virchow triad
three factors promoting thrombus formation which are venous stasis, hypercoagulability, and blood vessel damage
respirations during immobilization
are slow and shallow due to decreased oxygen demands, as well as drugs like sedatives and analgesics that depress neuromuscular functions and the respiratory centre
why do secretions build up in the lungs during immobilization?
because the cough reflex is decreased
effects of stasis of urine
urinary tract infections or renal stones due to urine pooling in the calyces
why may urine output be increased during immobility?
blood shifting to the thorax can cause the release of ANP, thus decreasing fluid reabsorption, ADH activity, and causing dehydration
common deformities in children as a result of immobility
commonly develop in the hands, spine, hips, and feet
distress meaning
is when an individual cannot adapt to a stressor, causing harmful effects on the body
locus ceruleus
is a collection of norephrine secreting cells in the brain stem
hormones released during stress response
first adrenocorticotropic hormone, then cortisol, norepinephine, and epinephrine
general effects of the stress response
increased HR, bronchodilation, increased blood glucose levels, arousal of CNS, and decreased immune responses
effects of prolonged stress
intellectual function and memory are impaired due to glucocorticoid release, the decreased immune system leading to frequency infections or longer healing (stomatitis or periodontal disease), acute renal failure, and necrosis
what serum level is elevated during stress?
cholesterol
stress ulcers
are multiple gastric ulcers and manifest with gastric hemorrhage; curling ulcer is an example
what contributes to the development of stress ulcers
vasoconstriction in the gastric mucosa causes decreased mucus degeneration and production, decreased motility caused chyme to accumulate in the stomach, and glucocorticoids delay healing
two factors delaying healing during stress
increased cortisol and increased catecholamine levels
example of an anxiety medication
lorazepam
somatic pain
originates from the skin or deeper structures and is localized; it travels by sensory fibres
visceral pain
pain associated with organs and travels by sympathetic fibres
two sensory fibres conducting pain impulses
the myelinated A delta fibers that transmit impulses rapidly and the unmyelinated C fibers that transmit impulses slowly
what fibre is acute pain conducted from?
the myelinated A delta fibres
what fibre is chronic pain conducted from?
the unmyelinated C fibres
two motor fibres associated with pain
both are in the spinothalamic bundle: the fast impulses for acute sharp pain travel in the neospinothalamic tract, whereas the slower impulses for chronic or dull pain use the paleospinothalamic tract
what influences the brain’s perception of pain stimuli?
the RAS
gate-control theory
this theory states that gates (located at nerve synapses) modify the entry of painful stimuli into the brain; closed gates result in less pain perception and vise versa; this is the result of the release of opiate like chemicals
transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation
is a therapeutic intervention that increases sensory stimulation at a site, thus blocking pain transmission
types of endorphins
enkephalins, dynorphins, and beta-lipotropins
how does enkephalin work?
it is released at the spinal cord and attaches to opiate receptors, blocking the release of substance P
what does acute pain indicate?
tissue damage
headaches located in the eyes and forehead area
are often associated with congested sinuses or eyestrain
tension headaches
are associated with stress and include muscle spasms from the neck in and pain is felt in the occipital area; associated with working for long periods
temporal area headaches
are associated with TMJ problems
migraines
are caused by abnormal changes in blood flow or metabolism in the brain
migraine symptoms
usually unilateral pain in the temporal area that spreads to the entire head; may be accompanied by nausea, vomiting, visual disturbances, and fatigue
mild migraine treatment
NSAIDs like ibuprofen or acetaminophen
moderate migraine treatment
a combination of acetaminophen, codeine and caffeine or acetaminophen, aspirin and caffeine
drug of choice for severe migraines
triptans or ergotamine if admistertisered immediately
intracranial headaches
result from pressure within the skull such as edema, tumor, or hemorrhage
central pain
is caused by damage to the brain or spinal cord
neuropathic pain
is pain involving the peripheral nerves
mild pain medications
aspirin, acetaminophen, and NSAIDs
what drug acts as a platelet inhibitor to reduce blood clots?
aspirin
moderate pain medications
usually codeine or oxycodone used in combination with aspirin or acetaminophen
severe pain medications
morphine or hydromorphone
surgical produces that work on the spinal cord to reduce pain
rhizotomy or cordotomy
what are trigger point injections used for?
headaches, fibromyalgia, and myofascial pain syndrome
trigger point types of injections
botox, anesthetics, and corticosteroids
bioelectric therapy
uses bioelectric currents that interrupt pain signals before they can reach the brain and produces endorphins
what are local anesthetics used for?
to block transmission of pain from a specific area
example of a local anesthesia
lidocaine
spinal anesthesia
is injected into epidural space of CSF to block nerve conduction at or below that level
general anesthesia gas
nitrous oxide
Neuroleptanesthesia
is a type of anesthesia where patients can respond to questions but are not aware of the pain
what used to be found in soaps and caused harmful effects?
hexachlorophene
toxic hardening agent in plastic
Bisphenol A
concerns with toxic plastics
they can mimic hormones and act within tissues
toxic effects of lead ingestion
is stored in bones and can cause hemolytic anemia, inflammation and ulceration of the GI tract, inflammation of kidney tubules, and neural damage
neural damage from lead
neuritis (inflammation and demyelination of peripheral nerves) and encephalopathy (edema and degeneration of neurons in the brain)
chemical burn
damage to tissues from acids or bases
malignant mesothelioma
is a rare form of lung cancer that develops in the mesothelium and is often caused by exposure to asbestos
signs of pesticide exposure
diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, pinpoint pupils, rashes, headaches, and irritation of the eyes, skin, or throat
hyperthermia signs
muscle cramps and spasms, heat exhaustion (headache, nausea, dizziness), and heat stroke (red, dry skin and weak pulse)
syncope
fainting
localized hypothermia signs
frostbite, causing vascular occlusion which can lead to necrosis and gangrene
systemic hypothermia signs
shizering, lethargy, confusion, slow pulse, slow respirations, and hypovolemic shock
what is ionizing radiation?
x-rays and gamma rays, as well as particles such as protons and neutrons
what are radiation emissions measured in?
roentgens
what does radiation primarily affect?
cells undergoing mitosis such as epithelial cells, gonads, and bone marrow
what does radiation sickness affect?
the bone marrow, digestive tract, and CNS
what does UV damage?
the nucleotides in the cells DNA
shorter lightwave damage to eyes
can damage the cornea
longer lightwave damage to eyes
can damage the macula and retina
gastroenteritis
vomiting and diarrhea; short term infection
Hemolytic uremic syndrome
occurs when E. coli invades the bloodstream and damages the kidney tubules
listeria
is most common in processed meat products such as sausage or ham and is common in the environment.
shigella
causes dysentery, a bloody diarrhea that is extremely dangerous and is a bacterium that is transmitted primarily through unwashed hands
melamine
is a plastic that has been added to food and milk in some areas of the world to allow dilution of the food with water
ingestion of melamine
acute renal failure and possible death
effects of poisonous bites
paralysis and respiratory failure or seizures, such as from a snake
