HLTH module 4: blood and lymphatic Flashcards
hematocrit
is the proportion of blood cells (primarly RBCs) in blood and this indicates the viscocity of the blood; males typically have higher levels than females do
serum
the fluid and solutes remaining after the cells and fibrinogen have been removed from the plasma
where do all blood cell originate from?
bone marrow of the flat and irregular bones
what is the cellular component of blood?
erthyrocytes, leukocytes, and thrombocytes
function of RBCs
to transport O2 and sometimes CO2 through binding to hemoglobin
how are RBCs made
when O2 levels are low, erthryopoitein is released by the kidneys to stimulate the bone marrow to produce more EBCs
hemoglobin structure
consists of two pairs of amino acid chains and four heme groups that each contain an iron molecule that O2 binds to
dyscrasia
refers to pathologic conditions of the blood that are disorders associated with teh cellular components
what is another name for WBCs?
leukocytes
leukopoiesis
the production of WBCs which is stimulated by colony stimulting factors which are produced by macrophages and T lymphocytes
agranulocytes
lymphocytes and monocytes
lymphocytes
make up 30-40% of WBCs and have B or T types; involved in the immune response
T lymhocytes
natural killer cells
B lymphocytes
produce antibodies
monocytes
can develop into macrophages
granulocytes
includes neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils
neutrophils
first responders for immune response and function as phagocytes
what is the most common leukocyte
neutorphils
eosinophils
tend to combat the effects of histamine and are increased during allergic reactions
basophils
migrate from blood to become mast cells and release histamine and heparin
what do mast cells release?
histamine and heparin
differential count meaning
the proportion of specific types of WBCs in the blood and this assists in making diagnoses
thrombocytes
aka platelets; these are essential for clotting through creating a platelet plug that seals small breaks in blood vessels
hemostatsis
term for blood clotting
what do platelets develop from?
megakaryocytes
what is plasma composed of?
proteins, water, and other substances like amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, enzymes, hormones, electrolytes, and waste products
3 types of plasma proteins
albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen
what does albumin function for?
maintains osmotic pressure
what does globulin function for?
antibodies
what does fibrinogen function for?
the formation of blood clots
hypoxia
low oxygen levels
what does the lymphatic system compose of?
lymphatic vessels and lymphoid tissue (this contains palatine and pharyngeal tonsils, lymph nodes, spleen, and the thymus gland
what is the function of the immune system?
to return excess interstital fluid and proteins to the blood, to filter and destroy any unwanted material, and to initate an immune response
flow of vessels in lymphatic system
vessels begin as small blind end capillaries > branches > trunks > ducts which empty into subclavian veins
differences between blood vessels and lymphatic vessels
lymphatic vessels are thinner, contain more valves, and form nodes at certian points
what do conditions that affect the lymphatic system return impact?
impacts the protein concentration of blood as well as osmotic pressure
how do lymph nodes offer immune protection?
by removing foreign or unwanted matierals form the lymph fluid before they enter the circulation
what do lymph nodes contain?
lymphocytes and macrophages
what structures does lymphoid tissue make up?
the palatine and pharygneal tonsils, lymph nodes, and thymus gland
how do palatine and pharyneal tonsils offer immune protection?
through protectign against bacterial infection as a first line of defence; however, this makes them suspecticle to infections
functions of the spleen
functions releated to defence (through macrophages), hemaotpoiesis, and RBC or platelet destruction
where is the thymus located?
in the mediastimun
function of the thymus gland
the final site for lymphocyte development before birth and secretes hormones after birth; allows lymphocytes to develop into mature T cells
composition of lymph
a clear, watery, isotonic fluid that closely resembles interstital fluid but with a lower protein concentration; also resembles blood plasma
3 steps of hemostatis
vasospasm, platelet plug, and coagulation
what do surronding cells release during a vascular injury?
collagen
clotting factors present in the blood
prothrombin and fibrinogen
3 steps of the platelet plug
platelet adhesion, platelet release action, and platelet aggravation
what does anemia mean?
reduced O2 transport in the blood due to decreased hemoglobin content
what are anemias classifed on?
size/ shape (morphology) and etiology (the types of anemias)
what are the effects of low O2?
less energy produced by cells (reduces cell metabolism and reproduction), tachycardia, peripheral vasoconstriction, fatigue, pale face, increased effort to breath, inflamed GI tract, inflamed and cracked lips, skin and hair degeneration, and chest pain during stressful situations
different types of anemia
iron deficiency, pernicious, aplastic, hemolytic, sickle cell, and thalassemia
what kind of cells does iron-deficent anemia result in?
small cells (microcytic) and less colour (hypochromic)
what can iron-deficent anemia occur as a result of?
decreased iron intake, chronic blood loss, hemorrhoids, cancer, excessive menstrual flow, impaired iron absorption, and some infections and cancers
signs of iron-deficient anemia
pale skin, fatigue, cold intolerance, brittle hair and nails, inflammation of tongue, menstrual irregularities, tachycardia and fainting
how is iron-deficiency anemia diagnosed?
blood tests that look for low hemoglobin, hematocrit, ferritin, and transferrin or through microscopic examination of cells
treatment for iron-deficiency anemia
iron rich food or iron supplements
pernicious anemia
aka megaloblastic anemia; b12 deficiency
another name for vitamin B12
cyanocobalamin
risks of pernicious anemia
can create a risk for neurological abnormalities due to the spinal cord; dangerous for pregnant women to impact the fetus
what does pernicious anemia result from?
a decreased production of intrinsic factor (this helps with B12 absorption in the gastric mucosa)
lack of B12 effects
causes the bone marrow to produce megaloblastic erythrocytes that end up being destroyed prematurely, essentially causing low RBC and hemoglobin count
what is caused by megaloblastic erythocytes?
large hypersegmented neutrophils
how does pernicious anemia impact the nervous system?
demyelination of the peripheral nerves and eventually the spinal cord occurs; this interferes with the conduction of nerve impulses
causes of pernicious anemia
usually due to autoimmune disorders that impact intrinsic factor production, or from gastrectomy procedures
signs of pernicious anemia
enlarged sore, red, and shiny tongue; digestive discomfort, neurological symptoms like tingling and burning sensations, and sometimes a loss of muscle control or coordination
tests for pernicious anemia
blood tests that look for low B12 levels and microscopic tests that look for megaloblastic and nucleated RBCs, as well as large granulocytes
treatment for pernicious anemia
b12 injections or supplements
aplastic anemia
results from impairment of failure of bone marrow resulting in a loss of stem cells and decreased numbers of the cellular content in the blood
pancytopenia
decreased numbers of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets in the blood
result of aplastic anemia to the bone marrow
more fatty tissue and less cell components
causes of aplastic anemia
middle age, immunotoxins like radiation, drugs, or chemicals, hep C, autoimmune disorders, and genetic abnormalities
signs for aplastic anemia
usually are gradual but are weakness, pale skin, recurrent infections, and hemorrhages on the skin
diagnosis for aplastic anemia
bone marrow biopsies or blood counts
treatment for aplastic anemia
bone marrow suppressants, blood transfusions, or bone marrow transplants
hemolytic anemia
results from excessive destruction of RBCs or hemolysis, resulting in low RBC count and total hemoglobin
2 types of hemolytic anemias
sickle cell and thalassemia
sickle cell anemia
abnormal hemoglobin shape called HbS that occurs when one amino acid in the pair of beta-globin chains changes
what are the adverse effects of the sickle cell shape?
it causes damage to the cell membrane, leading to hemolysis, as well as the obstruction of small blood vessels, leading to thrombus formation or tissue necrosis
when does the sickle cell shape occur?
when O2 levels are low
what is the HbS formation caused by?
a recessive gene
signs of sickle cell anemia
pale skin, weakness, tachycardia, yellowish colour of eye, gallstones, spleen enlargement, organ damage, strokes, lung infection, blood vessel damage, late puberty and congestive heart failutre
tests for sickle cell anemia
looking for the defective gene through blood test or DNA analysis of blood
treatment for sickle cell anemia
is still being developed but includes the use of hydroxyurea, folic acid supplements, and avoidance of high stress activity or high altitudes
thalassemia
results from a genetic defect in which one or more genes for hemoglobin and missing or variant
what does the genetic mutation in thalassemia result in?
it interferes with the globin chains and therefore the amount of hemoglobin being created; it also causes extra chains to accumulate, leading to hemolysis
2 types of thalassemia
thalassemia alpha and thalassemia beta
in what individuals in thalassemia alpha more common in?
indian, chinese, and southeast asians
in what individuals in thalassemia beta more common in?
mediterranean countries
signs of thalassemia
impaired growth and development, fatigue, abnormal skeletal development, and heart failure
tests for thalassemia
looks for increased RBC levels, increased iron levels, and small or less colour in RBCs
treatment for thalassemia
blood transfusions, folate supplements, and sometimes iron chelation therapy
primary polycthemia
increased production of RBC, granulocytes, and thromobytes in the bone marrow; increased blood viscosity causes blood vessels to swell and for flow to be sluggish
what does primary polycythemia result in?
thromboses, hemorrhages, infractions throughout the body and elevated blood pressure
secondary polycythemia
an increase in RBCs that occurs in response to prolonged hypoxia and increased erythorpoietin secretion
signs of primary and secondary polycythemia
deep bluish, red tone of the skin, an enlarged liver, itchiness, increased blood pressure, headaches, visual disturbances, and high levels of uric acid
testing for polycythemia
looks for hypercellular bone marrow, along with red marrow replacing yellow marrow
treatment for polycythemia
drugs or radiation that suppress the activity of bone marrow, or removal or blood
