HLTH week 1 Flashcards
common signs of inflammation
redness, swelling, pain, loss of function, heat, and pus
cytokines
the proteins that controll the activity and growth of immune cells; released during an acute immune response
2 stages of acute inflammation reactions
vascular and cellular
what do disorders associated with inflammation end in?
-itis
causes of inflammation
physical injury, chemicals, ischemia, allergic reactions, extreme temperatures, or forgein bodies
bradykinin
released from injured cells and activates pain receptors
what occurs during the vascular response?
vasodialtion and increased capillary permeability
what occurs during the cellular response?
the movement of cells as a result a chemical stimulus
chemotaxis
when chemicals released in respond to inflammation cause the movement of cells towards the site of injury
what do chemical mediators release during inflammation?
histimine, serotonin, prostaglandins, and leukotrines into the interstial fluid and blood
where is fever induced from?
the hypothalamus as this is the temperature regulator centre
what attracts neutrophils to the injury site?
platlet aggregation and chemotatic factor released by mast cells
examples of cytokines
interleukins and lymphokines
what do interleukins and lymphokines do?
increase plasma proteins, RBC sedimentation rate, induce fever, and cause chemotaxis
what besides histimine also causes the vascular response?
prostaglandins, bradykinin, and the complement system
hyperemia
increased blood flow
diapedesis
aka emigration; movement of cells from the capillaries to the interstital fluid
basophils
release histimine
eosionhils
increase during allergic reactions
what act as phagocytes?
neutrophils and monocytea
what is redness caused by?
increased blood flow
what is swelling caused by?
the shift of proteins and WBC’s into the interstital fluid
what is pain during inflammation caused by?
the pressure of fluid on the nerves
what is loss of function during inflammation caused by?
cells lacking nutrients
what does serous fluid contain?
small amounts of proteins and WBCs
exudate
a collection of interstital fluid in the inflammed area
systemtic effects of inflammation
mild fever, headache, fatigure, and loss of apetite
pyrexia
a low grade or mild fever
what do fevers result from?
pyogens which are fever producing substances from WBCs or macrophages
what shows up on lab reports during inflammation?
increased WBC count, elevated serum-C reactive protein, higher erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and incresed plasma proteins like fibronigen and prothrombin
what are potential complications of inflammation?
local complications at the site of injury such as decreased joint mobility and infection
chronic inflammation
may develop following an acute episode or from chronic irritation such as smoking
characterisitcs of chronic inflammation
swelling and higher concentrations of lymphocytes, marcophages, and fibroblasts
common medications for inflammation
asprin, acetaminophen (tylenol), NSAID, and glucocorticoids
how does asprin act of inflammation
by decreasing prostaglandin synthesis at the site of inflammation, reducing pain and inflammatioin as a result
side effects of asprin
can cause ulcers and irritation in the stomach, as well as potential blood clotting
how does acetaminophen act on inflammation?
it helps with pain and fever but does not actually decrease inflammation
how does NSAID act on inflammation?
it helps to reduce the production of prostaglandins, but it especially effective in reducing muscle and skeletal inflammation
how do glucocorticods act on inflammation
decrease capillary permeability, block the immune response, and decreases the number of leukocytes
side effects of glucocorticods
can effect the natural feedback mechanisms occuring in the adrenal cortex
3 types of healing responses
resolution, regeneration, and replacement
resolution
the process that occurs when there is minimal tissue damage
regeneration
occurs in damaged tissues when the cells are capable of mitosis; the damaged tissue is thus replacedf with idenitical tissue generated by the proliferation of nearby cells
replacement
occurs by CT by scar or fibrous tissue formation; this occurs when there is extensive tissue damage and the cells are incapable of mitosis; associated with chronic inflammation
where are cells incapable of mitosis
the brain and the myocardium
healing by first intention
occurs when the wound is clean and free of foreign material and necrotic tissue; here the edges of the tissue are held close together
healing by second intention
occurs when there is a larger break in the tissue and more inflammation, hence the healing process is longer and scar tissue forms
when does the process of tissue repair begin?
when there is a blod clot forming
granulation tissue
starts developing about 3-4 days after injury and is a very vasculare, moist, and pink tissue
tissue engineering
a new method is which stem cells are used to replace damaged tissues
factors promoting healing
youth, good nutrition, adequate hemoglobin, effective ciruclation, and a clean, uneffected wound
factors inhibiting healing
advanced age, reduced mitosis, poor nutrition, dehydration, low hemoglobin (anemia), circulatory problems, diabetes or cancer, and prolonged use of glucocorticoids
what is a burn?
a thermal or nonthermal (electrical or chemical) injury to the body causing acute inflammation and tissue destruction
what occurs after a burn in the body?
an acute inflammatory response which causes the release of chemical mediators, a major fluid shift, edema, and decreased blood volume
what are burns classified based on?
the depth and the percentage of body surface area
first degree burns
damage the epidermis and the upper dermis; burns are red, painful, and usually don’t leave a scar
second degree burns
aka partial thickness burn; the epidermis and part of the dermis are damaged; burns are red, blister, often scar, and can be easily infected
third degree burns
aka full thickness burn; the whole skin layers are damaged; the burn area may appear charred, the tissue shrinks, it scars, and skin grafts are often used for healing
general effects of burns
shock, inflammation, damaged respiratory systems, infections, and damaged metabolism
shock effects of burns
decreased blood volume and pressure, increased hematocrit, and prolonged shock may lead to kindey failure and damage to other organs
hematocrit
% of RBCs in a volume of blood
respiratory problems of burns
inhaled hot air may damage brochi and trachea, as inhalation of carbon monoxide is dangerous as it bonds to hemoglobin, taking O2’s place
how do burns cause infection
bacteria and fungi may invade open areas
metabolic needs after a burn
increased intake of protein and carbs
how are burns healed?
covering of the sound (nonstick dressings), new skin cultivation, surgery, and sometimes physio and occupational therapy
what suffix indicates a tumour?
-oma
benign tumours
consist of differentiated cells that reproduce at a ghiher than normal rate; does not expand into surronding tissues; not life threatening unless in the brain
malignant tumours
do not appear organised, grow faster than benign tumours, and infiltrate into surrounding organs and tissues
what may tumour cells secrete?
enzymes like collagenase which break down proteins or cells and growth factor which promotes angiogenesis
angiogenesis
the development of new capillaries in the tumour that promote further tumour development
warning signs of cancer
unusual bleeding, change in bowel or urinary habits, a change in a wart of mole, a sore that does not heal, unexplained weight loss, anemia, a persistent cough, or a solid lump
local effects of cancer
pain may be a sympton but usually not till later on, infection, ischemia, bleeding, obstruction of passagways, and tissue necrosis
systemic effects of cancer
weight loss through nutrient trapping of the tumours, fatigue, pneumoniam, and parneoplastic syndromes
parneoplastic syndromes
are associated with certain tumours when cells release substances that affect neurological function and blood clotting
diagnostic tests for cancer
self examination, blood tests that look at RBC and hemoglobin count (low in an indicator), tumour markers, X-rays, ultrasounds, CT’s, MRI’s, genomic tumour assesments, and cytologic tests
tumour markers
substances, enzymes, antigens, and hormones produced by neoplastic cells; can be used to confirm a diagnosis
3 mechanisms for the spread of tumour cells
invasion, metastasis, or seeding
tumour invasion
a local spread in which the tumour grows into adjacent tissues
tumour metastasis
cells spread to distant sites by blood or lympathic channels; usually will first develop in the lymph nodes, liver, or lungs
tumour seeding
the spread of cancer cells in body fluids or among membranes; usually occurs in body cavities; common with ovarian cancer
what can chronic inflammation lead to?
rheumatoid arthritis, deep ulcers, or extensive scar tissue
carciongenesis
the process in which normal cells develop into cancer cells
what is staging?
a classification process that is applied to a specific malignant tumour at the time of diagnosis; this provides a basis for treatment and prognosis
3 factors of staging classification
the size of the primary tumour (T), the extent of involvement in the regional lymph nodes (N), and the spread which is invasion or metastatis (M)
what is carniongeneis a result of?
repeated exposure to a single risk factor (or a combination) that may lead to changes that activate or change gene expression
what are risk factors for ovarian carcinogenesis?
oncogenic viruses
the 4 stages of carcinogenesis
intitating factors that cause the first irrevisble DNA changes; epxosure to promoters that cause further changes in DNA (incresed mitosis); continued exposure and changes in DNA that result in a malignant tumour; and changes in the regulation of growth result in cells that are capable of spreading
risk factors for carcinogenesis
genetic conditions, radiation, viruses, chemicals, biologic factors, age, diet, and hormones
preventative measures for carcinogenesis
avoid certain foods, avoid sun exposure, regular screenings, and a diet high in fibre, antioxidants, and vitamins A and E
host defences for carinogenesis
the immune reaction in which cytoloxic T lymphocytes, natural killer cells, and macrophages act as defence
two different immune responses
cell-mediated and humoural
treatments for cancer
chemotherpay, radiation therapy, surgery, and immunotherapy
why is leukaemia often treated with chemotherapy?
because the cells are circulating in the blood
how does immunotherapy work?
it stimulates the immune system to attack the cancer
two general types of treatment
curative or palliative (extends the life as long as possible)
adjuvant therapy
are additional preventative treatments that are used in cancers that spread quickly and are unseen
additional non-medical treatments for cancer?
physio, occupational therapy, and speech therapy which support the paitent psychologically
radiofrequency ablation
an alternative surgery and is less invasive by using CT’s and ultrasound to guide a needle and electrolytes into the timour
what is radiofrequency abllation used for?
small tumours in the lungs and liver
how does radiation therapy work?
by causing mutations or alterations in the targeted DNA, as a result preventing mitosis or causing intermediate cell death; it also damages the blood supply to tumours
how does ionizing radiation work?
by using x-rays ro gamma rays, as well as high energy penetrating particles
adverse effects of radiotherapy
bone marrow depression, epithelial cell damage, fatigue and damage to the genitals
long term adverse effects of radiotherapy
inflammation, necrosis, and scar tissue
how does chemotherapy work?
involves the admistraiton of 2-4 drugs usually in 6 week intervals that fight against rapidly reproducing drugs
common chemotherapy drugs
antimiotics, antimetabolites, alklating agents, and antibiotics
how do chemotherapy drugs work?
they interfere with protien synthesis and DNA replication at different points in a tumours life
adriamycin
an antibiotic that binds DNA and inhibits synthesis of nucleic acids; acts on the S phase
bleomycin
an anitbiotic that inhibits DNA synthesis
vinblastine
an antibiotic that acts on the M cycle
decarbazine
an alkylating agent that acts on several differnt points in the cycle
adverse effects of chemotherapy
bone marrow depression, vomitting, hair loss, skin breakdown damaged skin and mucosa, and damaged gonads
why does hair loss and breakdown of the skin occur in chemotherapy?
because the epithelial layer is damaged
how does gene therapy work?
it replaces mutated genes with a healthy copy of the gene, causes an inactivation of the gene and the introduction of a new gene
other drug treatments for cancer
prescription of hormones, glucorticods, angiogenesis inhibitors, and biologic response modifiers
side effects of cancer related to nutrition
change in taste, vomitting, anorexia, sore mouth, loss of teeth, and malabsorption due to inflammation of the GI tract
how to combat nutrition side effects of cancer?
ice mouth rinses, frequent small meals of palatable food, total parenteral nutrition, and antimetic drugs (these increase appetite)
total parenteral nutrition
injects a nutrtion mixture into veins
skin cancer recovery
ususally high recovery except for melanoma
what is skin cancer normally treated with?
surgery
most common skin cancer
basal cell carcinoma
ovarian cancer recovery
very poor, as symptons aren’t obvious until later on and the tumour gets hidden in the periotneal cavity
signs of ovarian cancer
pressure on the bladder or intestine and irregular bladder and urinary patterns
what are risk factors for ovarian cancer?
hormonal and genetic factors
what is an elevated marker in ovarian cancer?
Ca1245
where does ovarian cancer often travel to?
the liver, pelvis, and uterus
treatment for ovarian cancer
surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy
when are brain stems vital
often (even beningn ones); very vital if in the cerebellum or brainstem as these inhibit respiratory functions
early signs of a brain tumour
seizures, headaches, drowsiness, vomitting, visual problems, or impaired motor function
treatment for brain cancer
surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy
allele
a specific version of a gene; ex. brown eyes are an allele
heterozygous genotypes
have two different alleles
homozygous genotypes
have the same alleles
recessive
opposite of dominant
phenotype
the observable expression of the genotype
genotype
the person’s unique sequence of DNA as inherited by two people
function of RNA
provides communication links with DNA during actual protien synthesis and helps to maintain the control of cell activity
polygenic
more than one allele determines the genotype and thus the phenotype of the individual
what can gene mutations occur as a result of?
radion, chemicals, or drugs
congenital amomalies
refers to disorders present at birth; defects can be genetic or developmental
what can genetic disorders arise from?
a single gene trait or a chromosomal defect
what are single-gene disorders caused by?
a change in one gene within the reproductive cells; this is transferred to subsequent generations
what do chromosomal anomalies usually result from?
an error during meiosis, specifically when the DNA fragments are lost or displayed
developmental defects
can be spontaneous errors or may result from exposure to toxic factors in utero
teratogenic agents
those that cause damage during embryonic or fetal development
multifactorial disorders
involve genes or genetic influences, combined with environmental factors
cystic fibrosis
affects the exocrine glands in the lungs and the pancreas
sickle cell disease
ineffective hemoglobin
phenylketonuria
occurs when there is a missing metabolic enzyme
recessive disorder
both parents must pass on the defective gene to produce a homozygous child
recessive disorder for heterozygous children
no clinical signs appear
autosomal dominant disorders
the presence of the defect in only one of the alleles produces expression of the disease; 50% chance of passing the disease on to child
examples of autosomal dominant disorders
huntington’s disease, polycystic kidney disease, and neurofibromatosis
X-linked dominant disorders
occurs when an inherited dominant allele is carried on one of the X chromosomes
most common X linked dominant disorders
fragile X and this is the common cause of mental retardation, cognitive defects, and learning disorders
X-linked recessive disorders
the genes for this are recessive but are manifested in heterozygous males who lack the matching normal gene on the Y chromosome; females are carriers when they are heterozygous
examples of X-linked recessive disorders
hemophilia A and duchenne muscular dystrophy
tirsomy
when there are three chromosomes rather than 2 in the 21 position; results in down syndrome
translocation
a less common form of down syndrome when part of chromosome 21 is attracted to another chromosomes
monosomy X
occurs when only one sex chromosome (the X) is present; the individual therefore has only 45 chromosomes
common examples of multifactorial disordesr
cleft palate, congenital hip dislocation, congenital heart disease and type 2 diabetes
how is the risk for having a down syndrome child caused?
by damage to the oocytes which results from aging factors
characteristics of someone with down syndrome
small head, flat face, slanted eyes, open mouth, small hands, delayed development, cognitive impairment, and delayed or incomplete sexual development
cerebral palsy
a group of disorders that affect an individual’s ability to move in certain ways through damage to motor brain areas
areas of the brain affected in cerebral palsy
cerebellum, motor cortex, and the basal ganglia
prenatal risk factors for cerebral palsy
genetic mutations and torch infections
perinatal risk factors for cerebral palsy
premature birth, O2 deprivation, and torch infections
postnatal risk factors for cerebral palsy
infections (bacterial meningitis)
developmental disorders risk factors
alcohol, cigarettes, radiation, pharmaceuticals, cocaine, and infections
what do developmental risk factors do?
damage the placental barrier and damage the rapidly dividing cells of the embryo and fetus
TORCH meaning
toxoplasmosis, other (hepatitis B, mumps, varicella, syphilis, and gonorrhea), robella, cytomegalovirus, and herpes
when are diagnostic test for genetic or chromosomal disorders recommended?
women over 35, those with genetic family history, and those will current children who have abnormalities
methods for genetic or chromosomal defect testing
ultrasonography, amniocentesis, and triple screen maternal blood tests
ultrasonography
can visualize structural anomalies
amniocentesis
involves an extraction of amniotic fluid from the uterus
benefits of prenatal screening
can offer reassurance to families, gives time to provide a plan, gives time to decide on an abortion, and can help with certain disorders common in certain populations
genetic engineering
the practices of manipulating genes in living organisms by changing DNA sequence by rearrangement, deletion, or substitution
goal of genetic engineering
to remove a defective gene and supply a normal one
gene therapy
involves the introduction of normal genes in living target cells by means of a harmless virus or bacteria
when is gene therapy effective?
for single gene disorders like cystic fibrosis, polycystic kidney disease, or huntington’s disease
proteomic research
this is research of proteins that are produced when the gene is activated; it strives to characterise all of the proteins that are significant in the metabolic pathway for the expression of a single allele
