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Anatomy and Phyisology > nervous system pt 2 (sensation, perception, nerves, etc.) > Flashcards

nervous system pt 2 (sensation, perception, nerves, etc.) Flashcards

1
Q

sensation

A

the awareness of a stimulus through sensors; information from the environment will be translated into electrical messages called action potentials

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2
Q

perception

A

the conscious interpretation, organization, and meaning of the stimulus and this occurs within the cerebrum

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3
Q

what are sensory receptors based on?

A

the type of stimulus they detect, the location in the body, and the structural complexity

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4
Q

two types of general senses

A

somatic and visceral senses

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5
Q

difference between general senses and special senses

A

general senses are those that are distributed throughout the body and have receptor cells within the structure of other organs (somatic or visceral), while special senses are those that have a specific organ devoted to them (ex. ear, nose, etc.)

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6
Q

somatic senses

A

all tactile senses (touch), pain, and proprioception that detect mechanical stimuli

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7
Q

what are somatic senses associated with?

A

mechanial stimuli

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8
Q

visceral senses

A

conscious/subconscious sensation of internal organs that is associated with autonomic function

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9
Q

special senses

A

olfaction, taste, vision, hearing, equilibrium, and balance

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10
Q

first-order neurons

A

initial sensory receptors that receive impulses from the skin and preceptors (sensory receptors) and branch diffusely as they enter the spinal cord or medulla oblongata; here they will synapse with second-order neurons

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11
Q

how do first-order neurons synapse with second-order neurons?

A

first-order neurons will synapse with second-order neurons in the cuneate or gracile nuclei of the medulla oblangata; second-order neurons will then travel to the thalamus

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12
Q

how do second order neurons synapse with third order neurons?

A

second order neurons will synapse with third in the thalamus and extend to the the somatosensory cortex

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13
Q

3 types of interactions with first-order neurons

A

free nerve endings, encapsulated nerve endings, and specialized receptor cells

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14
Q

free nerve endings

A

the dendrites of first-order neurons are exposed directly to the surrounding tissue of the environment without any specialised receptor structure; the bare endings will detect the stimulus directly

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15
Q

what are free nerve endings typically associated with?

A

detecting pain, temperature, and some light touch

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16
Q

encapsulated endings of first-order neurons

A

these types are wrapped in a specialised CT and this modifies the sensitivity of the neuron, allowing it to detect specific types of mechanical stimulus more effectively

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17
Q

examples of encapsulated endings

A

pacinian corpuscles and meissner’s corpuscles

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18
Q

specialised receptor cells

A

here, the neurons do not directly interact with the external environment, instead they form synapses with specialised receptor cells which will first detect the stimulus and then release neurotransmitters that will activate the first-order neurons; associated with all special senses

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19
Q

example of specialised receptor cells

A

all special senses; ex. receptor cells such as gustatory (taste) receptors that will release acetylcholine, serotonin and norepinephrine

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20
Q

interceptor

A

a type of sensory receptor that detects and responds to stimuli from within the body (internal viscera, tissues, and blood vessels) rather than the external environment

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21
Q

function of interceptors

A

to maintain homeostasis and visceral sensation through responding to internal conditions such as blood pressure, temperature changes, chemical compositions, and stretching of internal organs

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22
Q

examples of interoceptors

A

baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, and stretch receptors

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23
Q

exteroreceptor

A

sensory receptors that respond to stimuli arising outside of the body and are located on or near the body’s surface

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24
Q

functions of exteroceptors

A

to detect external stimuli and sensory perception to process sensory information such as touch, temperature, pain, and pressure

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25
Q

examples of exteroceptors

A

mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, photoreceptors, nociceptors, and olfactory receptors

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26
Q

proprioceptors

A

sensory receptors that respond to stretch in skeletal muscle, tendons, joints, ligaments, and CT surrounding bone and muscle, while also allowing one to be aware of their body position and movement

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27
Q

functions of proprioceptors

A

body awareness, coordination of movement, and balance and posture

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28
Q

examples of proprioceptors

A

muscle spindles, golgi tendon organs, and joint receptors

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29
Q

mechanoreceptors

A

respond to touch, pressure, vibration, and stretch

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30
Q

thermoreceptors

A

sensitive to changes in temperature

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31
Q

nociceptors

A

sensitive to pain causing stimuli, ex. extreme hot or cold, excessive pressure, and inflammatory chemicals

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32
Q

chemoreceptors

A

respond to chemicals, ex. smell, taste, and changes in blood chemistry

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33
Q

photoreceptors

A

respond to light energy, ex. retina

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34
Q

osmoreceptors

A

respond to the osmolarity of the ECF

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35
Q

adaptation

A

how quickly you become acclimated to a sensation when the stimulus is sustained; 2 types

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36
Q

2 types of adaptation

A

rapidly adapting receptors and slowly adapting receptors

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37
Q

rapidly adapting receptors

A

respond quickly to a change in stimulus but stop firing or reduce their firing rate if the stimulus is sustained; specialised in detecting changes in the environment such as the start or end of a stimulus

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38
Q

types of stimulus associated with rapidly adapting receptors

A

stimulus like temperature or smell; non-life threatening stimuli

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39
Q

examples of rapidly adapting receptors

A

Pacinian and meissner’s corpuscles

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40
Q

slowly adapting receptors

A

continue to fire at a relatively constant rate as long as the stimulus is present; they provide continuous information about a sustained stimulus and do not adapt quickly to constant input

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41
Q

types of stimulus associated with slowly adapting receptors

A

life threatening stimuli like pain or extreme temperatures

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42
Q

three steps in a typical somatic sensory pathway

A

first-order neuron, second-order neuron, and third-order neuron

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43
Q

what are interneurons in the ascending pathway

A

second and third-order neurons

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44
Q

lower motor neurons

A

the only neurons that directly control skeletal muscle; function as the final common pathway for transmitting motor commands to muscle, resulting in movement

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45
Q

where do lower motor neurons receive their input from?

A

upper motor neurons (rarely) or local circuit neurons

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46
Q

where are lower motor neurons found?

A

the anterior horn of the spinal cord and the motor nuclei of cranial nerves in the brainstem

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47
Q

upper motor neurons

A

synapse with local circuit neurons and rarely with LMNs; these initiate and plan voluntary movements through sending signals from the brain to LMNs

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48
Q

pathways for UMNs

A

corticospinal tract and corticobulbar tract

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49
Q

where are upper motor neurons located?

A

the primary motor cortex; precentral gyrus and premotor cortex

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50
Q

local circuit neurons

A

close to and synapse with LMNs; these integrate sensory input and motor commands; important for generating reflexes, coordination, and walking

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51
Q

where are local circuit neurons located?

A

in the spinal cord and brainstem

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52
Q

basal nuceli

A

large group of CNS neurons that are implicated in emotion and habitual behaviour; responsible for the initiation and regulation of voluntary movements by modulating UMN activity

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53
Q

where are basal nuclei located?

A

deep in the brain such as the caudate nucleus and putamen

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54
Q

similarities between the direct and indirect motor pathway

A

both are pathways in which the brain controls voluntary and involuntary movement, and both involves UMNs

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55
Q

direct motor pathway

A

involves the direct linkage of axons from the cerebral cortex to the end of a tract in the spinal cord without any intermediary relays; ex. corticospinal (lateral and anterior) and corticobulbar

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56
Q

where will the synapse occur in a direct pathway?

A

an interneuron (lateral tract) or a ventral horn motor neuron (anterior tract)

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57
Q

another name for direct motor pathway

A

pyramidal system

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58
Q

tracts involved in the direct motor pathway

A

corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts

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59
Q

what type of movement does the direct motor pathway result in?

A

fast and fine (skilled) movements

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60
Q

indirect motor pathway

A

complex and multisynaptic pathway that involves input from basal nuclei, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex, which indirectly influences LMNs through these relays (includes all motor pathways except from pyramidal pathways)

61
Q

what do indirect motor pathways regulate

A

axial muscles, muscles controlling coarse limb movements, and head, neck, and eye movements

62
Q

tracts involved in the indirect motor pathway

A

rubrospinal, reticulospinal, vestibulospinal, and tectospinal tracts

63
Q

corticospinal tract

A

a major motor pathway that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscle; it originates in the primary motor cortex and descends through the brain and the spinal cord where it synapses with LMNs

64
Q

lateral corticospinal tract

A

located in the lateral white matter of the spinal cord and controls fine, precise and voluntary movements, most often in the hands and fingers; majority of these tracts decussate at the medullary pyramid

65
Q

anterior corticospinal tract

A

located within the anterior white matter of the spinal cord; it primarily controls the axial muscles of the shoulders, trunk, and neck that are involved in posture in balance; these rarely decussate at the medullary pyramids

66
Q

PNS

A

provides link from and to the outside body from the world; includes all neural structures outside of CNS such as sensory receptors, peripheral nerves, associated ganglia, and efferent motor endings; further branches into sensory division and motor division, then to ANS

67
Q

ANS

A

consists of motor neurons that innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands; it will make adjustments to ensure optimal support for body activities such as adjusting heart rate, blood pressure, and digestive processes; further breaks down in sympathetic or parasympathetic systems

68
Q

afferent divison

A

aka sensory division; includes somatic and visceral sensory nerve fibres that conduct impulses from receptors to the CNS

69
Q

2 types of nerve fibres in sensory divison

A

somatic sensory nerve fibres and visceral sensory nerve fibres

70
Q

efferent division

A

aka motor division; motor nerve fibres that conduct impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands); breaks down into somatic and autonomic nervous systems

71
Q

sympathetic division

A

mobilises body systems during activity; fight or flight system

72
Q

parasympathetic system

A

conserves energy and promotes housekeeping functions during rest (rest and digest)

73
Q

dual innervation

A

all visceral organs are served by autonomic divisions; however, they have opposite effects and this serves to maintain homeostasis

74
Q

main differences between somatic and autonomic pathways

A

both have motor fibres but differ in their effectors, efferent pathways, ganglia, and target organ response to release neurotransmitters

75
Q

main differences in muscle use or effectors between somatic and autonomic systems

A

somatic system uses skeletal muscle and is voluntary (except for reflexes), while the autonomic system is involved in smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands, and is involuntary

76
Q

efferent pathways in somatic nervous systems

A

has cell body in the CNS and is a single thick myelinated group A axon that extends in spinal or cranial nerves directly to skeletal muscle

77
Q

autonomic nervous system efferent pathways

A

uses a two-neuron chain that is both preganglionic neuron and postganglionic neuron

78
Q

differences in ganglia between somatic and autonomic systems

A

somatic ganglia are usually located in the dorsal root and autonomic ganglia are located close to the spinal cord (sympathetic) or in or near their visceral organ (parasympathetic)

79
Q

preganglionic neuron

A

has the cell body in the CNS with thin, lightly myelinated axon extending to the ganglion

80
Q

postganglionic neuron

A

outside the CNS and the cell body synapses with the preganglionic axon; its structure is unmyelinated and extends to the effector organ

81
Q

somatic nervous system neurotransmitter effects

A

all neurons release acetylcholine, in which the effect is always stimulatory

82
Q

autonomic nervous system neurotransmitter release

A

preganglionic fibres release acetylcholine and postganglionic fibres release acetylcholine or norepinephrine; the effect is either stimulatory or inhibitory, depending on the type of receptors

83
Q

craniosacral divison

A

another name for parasympathetic division; called this because fibres originate from the brainstem and sacral regions of cord

84
Q

thoracolumbar division

A

another name for the sympathetic division; called this because fibres originate in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord

85
Q

range for thoracolumbar division

A

T1-L2

86
Q

length of fibres in sympathetic system

A

short preganglionic and long postganglionic fibres

87
Q

length of fibres in parasympathetic system

A

long preganglionic and short postganglionic fibres

88
Q

location of ganglia in parasympathetic system

A

located in or near their visceral effector organ

89
Q

location of ganglia in sympathetic system

A

lie close to the spinal cord

90
Q

site of origin for parasympathetic system

A

brain and sacral spinal cord; hence craniosacral

91
Q

site of origin for sympathetic system

A

thoracic and lumbar regions; hence thoracolumbar

92
Q

examples of effects of parasympathetic system

A

decreased blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rates, increased gastrointestinal activity, and constricted pupils

93
Q

examples of effects of sympathetic system

A

increased blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rates, decreased gastrointestinal activity, and dilated pupils

94
Q

visceral reflex

A

reflexes that involve an internal organ as the effector and have the same components as somatic reflexes but there are three main differences

95
Q

examples of visceral reflexes

A

reflexes that empty the bladder and the rectum

96
Q

similarities between reflex arcs and visceral reflexes

A

receptor, sensory neuron, integration centre, and effector

97
Q

3 main differences between reflex arcs and visceral reflexes

A

visceral reflexes have two consecutive neurons in the motor pathway, the afferent fibres are visceral sensory neurons, and effectors are smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands rather than skeletal muscle

98
Q

ventral ramus

A

one of the two primary branches that emerges from the spinal nerve (exits anterior); plays a crucial role in the distribution of motor and sensory innervation to the body’s anterior and lateral regions of the limbs

99
Q

gray ramus communicans

A

branch of the sympathetic system that provides a route for unmyelinated, postganglionic fibres that connect the sympathetic trunk to the ventral ramus of a spinal nerve

100
Q

white ramus communicans

A

branch of the sympathetic system that provides a route for myelinated preganglionic fibres that will synapse will the postganglionic neuron in the sympathetic trunk

101
Q

sympathetic trunk

A

a chain of ganglia that extend from the base of the skull to the coccyx; is made of neuron cell bodies that lie outside the CNS and lie on either side of the vertebral column

102
Q

what kind of peripheral nerves can you have?

A

cranial or spinal

103
Q

how many pairs of mixed nerves are there in a spinal nerve?

A

31

104
Q

what sensory fibres are apart of the sensory division?

A

somatic sensory fibres and visceral sensory fibres

105
Q

what are different effects of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions caused by?

A

different neurotransmitters and receptor types of effectors

106
Q

another name for interoreceptors

A

visceroreceptors

107
Q

2 categories that sensory receptors belong to

A

simple receptors of the general senses and receptors for special senses

108
Q

where are free nerve endings abundant?

A

epithelia and connective tissues

109
Q

what are the most common receptors for encapsulated nerve endings?

A

mechanoreceptors

110
Q

three ascending pathways for sensory information

A

dorsal column–medial lemniscal pathway, spinothalamic pathway, and spinocerebellar tract

111
Q

2 other names for ANS

A

involuntary nervous system and general visceral motor system

112
Q

similarities between somatic and autonomic systems

A

both are regulated by higher brain centres; both spinal and cranial nerves will contain somatic and autonomic fibres; and adaptations usually will involve both somatic and autonomic fibres

113
Q

will parasympathetic or sympathetic system cause the liver to release glucose?

A

sympathetic

114
Q

what system are white and grey communicantes part of?

A

the sympathetic system

115
Q

what type of neurons are sensory neurons?

A

unipolar

116
Q

what type of neurons are interneurons?

A

mulitpolar

117
Q

what type of neurons are motor neurons?

A

multipolar

118
Q

what first order neurons will vary greatly in shape and size?

A

encapsulated endings

119
Q

three typical pathways of sympathetic innervation

A

synapse in trunk ganglion at the same level, at a higher or lower level, or pass through without synapsing here

120
Q

synapse in trunk ganglion at the same level

A

the spinal nerve and ganglia are at the same level; the preganglionic neuron will travel through the ventral ramus and the white communicans where it will synapse with the postganglionic neuron in the sympathetic trunk ganglia, which will leave via the rami grey communicans and travel to the target effector

121
Q

example of synapse in a trunk ganglion at the same level

A

T1 spinal nerve projects to T1 ganglia to innervate the trachea

122
Q

synapse in trunk ganglion at a higher or lower level

A

the spinal nerve and ganglia are at different levels and this will occur when the target effector is below or above the thoracolumbar divison; the preganglionic neuron will synapse with the postganglionic neuron above or below

123
Q

example of synapse in trunk ganglion at a higher or lower level

A

spinal nerve T1 needs to synapse with the eye so it will travel up through the sympathetic trunk until it reaches the cervical ganglion

124
Q

passing through the trunk without synapsing

A

the preganglionic neuron will travel through additional branches of the ventral nerve (sphlanic) to the distal collateral ganglion where the synpase will occur

125
Q

what is passing through the trunk without synapsing associated with?

A

controlling organs of the abdominal cavity

126
Q

where will the synapse occur for passing through the trunk without synapsing?

A

distal collateral ganglion after travelling down the splanchnic nerve

127
Q

what does mixed nerve mean?

A

nerves contain both sensory and motor fibres; sends impulses to and from the CNS

128
Q

what system are cranial and spinal nerves part of?

A

the PNS

129
Q

3 levels of sensory integration

A

receptor level, circuit level and perceptual level

130
Q

EPSP

A

any stimulus that depolarises a membrane; excitatory postsynpatic potential

131
Q

IPSP

A

any stimulus that hyperpolarises a membrane and inhibits action potentials; inhibitory postsynaptic

132
Q

what is the gracile pathway used for and what is the cuneate pathway used for?

A

gracile for lower limbs and cuneate for upper limbs; these pathways are associated with light touch like tickling

133
Q

posterior column medial leminscus pathway simple

A

FON will project up the spinal cord and synpase with SON in the cuneate or gracile nucelus of the medulla oblangata; the SON will then immediately decussates, passes thorugh the medial lemninscus in the midbrain and then synpase with the TON in the thalamus; TON will project to the primary somatosensory cortex

134
Q

somatic motor direct pathway

A

UMN will synpase directly with LMN in the brain or spinal cord and the LMN will directly target an effector

135
Q

2 corticospinal pathways

A

motor pathways; anterior and lateral

136
Q

corticobulbar pathway

A

occurs when a cranial nerve is being used and is often movement in the face; an UMN will project through the cerebral peduncle in the pons where is decussates and synapses with a LMN that projects to a skeletal muscle

137
Q

hormonal system of the sympathetic division

A

the preganglionic neuron can enter the adrenal medulla, releasing Ach and this triggers the release of chromaffin which triggers the release of epinephrine and norephinephinre into the bloodstream

138
Q

what triggers the hormonal release of epinephrine and norepinephrine in the sympatheic resposne?

A

chromaffin

139
Q

where in the thalamus does the second order neuron synapse with the third order neuron?

A

the ventral posterior nucleus

140
Q

sacral outflow of nerves from parasympathetic divison

A

inferior hypogastric plexus and pelvic splanchnic nerve; both of these regulate the rectum, the bladder and ureters, and the genitalia

141
Q

nerves associated with cranial outflow from parasympathetic division

A

oculomotor, facial, vagus, and glossopharyngeal nerves

142
Q

oculomotor nerve for parasympathetic system

A

causes pupils to constrict and cells bodies of postganglionic neuron are located in the ciliary ganglion

143
Q

facial nerves for parasympathetic system

A

2 different branches (pteryogopalatine and submandibular ganglia); these control crying and mucous production in the mouth

144
Q

glossopharyngeal nerve for parasympathetic system

A

synapse occurs in the otic ganglia and activates the parotid salivary glands (anterior to the ears)

145
Q

vagus nerve for parasympathetic system

A

has two main plexuses; cardiac/ pulmonary plexus will control heart rate and respiration, and the celiac plexus innervates the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes

146
Q

where are the splanic nerves located?

A

on the anterior side of the spinal cord

147
Q

pathways to the head

A

include spinal nerves from T1-T4; these ascend to the superior cervical ganglia and control the head, eyes, and salivary glands

148
Q

pathways to the thorax

A

include spinal nerves from T1-T6; these ascend to the middle cervical ganglia and combine into the cardiac and pulmonary plexus to control heart rate and the lungs

149
Q

pathways to the collateral ganglia

A

the rest of the spinal nerves travel along the splanchnic nerves (greater, lesser, or lumbar) and travel to the celiac, superior mesenteric and inferior mesenteric ganglia

Anatomy and Phyisology (9 decks)

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