7.1: Self-report techniques Flashcards
Self-report techniques
Self-report techniques are research methods in which participants give information about themselves without researcher interference
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are a self-report method where participants record their own answers to a pre-set list of questions
With questionnaires, respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions, usually concerning what?
With questionnaires, respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions, usually concerning:
- Behaviour
- Opinions
- Attitudes
With questionnaires, respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions, usually concerning behaviour, opinions and attitudes.
Example
For example, Adorno’s (1950) F-scale questionnaire
With questionnaires, respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions, usually concerning behaviour, opinions and attitudes.
How many main types of questions are asked?
There are 2 main types of questions asked:
- Closed (fixed) questions
- Open questions
With questionnaires, respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions, usually concerning behaviour, opinions and attitudes.
There are 2 main types of questions asked - Closed (fixed) questions and open questions.
Closed (fixed) questions involve what?
Closed (fixed) questions involve:
1. Yes/No answers
Or,
2. A range of fixed responses
With questionnaires, respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions, usually concerning behaviour, opinions and attitudes.
There are 2 main types of questions asked - Closed (fixed) questions and open questions.
Closed (fixed) questions involve Yes/No answers, or a range of fixed responses.
They force participants to choose an option.
Such answers are easy to analyse, but do what?
Such answers are easy to analyse, but restrict participants’ answers
With questionnaires, respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions, usually concerning behaviour, opinions and attitudes.
There are 2 main types of questions asked - Closed (fixed) questions and open questions.
Open questions allow participants to do what?
Open questions allow participants to:
- Answer in their own words
- Elaborate on their answers and give more detail
With questionnaires, respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions, usually concerning behaviour, opinions and attitudes.
There are 2 main types of questions asked - Closed (fixed) questions and open questions.
Open questions allow participants to answer in their own words and elaborate on their answers and give more detail.
Open questions are more difficult to do what?
Open questions are more difficult to analyse
With questionnaires, respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions, usually concerning behaviour, opinions and attitudes.
There are 2 main types of questions asked - Closed (fixed) questions and open questions.
Open questions allow participants to answer in their own words and elaborate on their answers and give more detail.
Open questions are more difficult to analyse, but allow what?
Open questions are more difficult to analyse, but allow:
- Freedom of expression
- Greater depth of answers
With questionnaires, respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions, usually concerning behaviour, opinions and attitudes.
There are 2 main types of questions asked - Closed (fixed) questions and open questions.
Open questions allow participants to answer in their own words and elaborate on their answers and give more detail.
Open questions are more difficult to analyse, but allow freedom of expression and greater depth of answers.
Example
For example:
- What kinds of music do you like
- Why?
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are what?
An advantage of questionnaires is that they are:
- Cheap
- Quick
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, what can be gathered in a short period?
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
Postal questionnaires can gain what for the cost of a stamp?
Postal questionnaires can gain relatively large samples for the cost of a stamp
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
Postal questionnaires can gain relatively large samples for the cost of a stamp.
With questionnaires, large amounts of data can be gathered quickly.
Postal and online questionnaires cost very little to get a lot of information.
2. Lack of what?
An advantage of questionnaires is lack of investigator effects
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
Postal questionnaires can gain relatively large samples for the cost of a stamp.
With questionnaires, large amounts of data can be gathered quickly.
Postal and online questionnaires cost very little to get a lot of information.
2. Lack of investigator effects.
Questionnaires can be completed how and without what?
Questionnaires can be completed:
- On your own
- Without researchers present
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
Postal questionnaires can gain relatively large samples for the cost of a stamp.
With questionnaires, large amounts of data can be gathered quickly.
Postal and online questionnaires cost very little to get a lot of information.
2. Lack of investigator effects.
Questionnaires can be completed on your own and without researchers present, so there is no influence from a researcher, which reduces investigator effects.
3. What analysis?
An advantage of questionnaires is:
1. Quantitative
2. Qualitative
analysis
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
Postal questionnaires can gain relatively large samples for the cost of a stamp.
With questionnaires, large amounts of data can be gathered quickly.
Postal and online questionnaires cost very little to get a lot of information.
2. Lack of investigator effects.
Questionnaires can be completed on your own and without researchers present, so there is no influence from a researcher, which reduces investigator effects.
3. Quantitative and qualitative analysis.
Closed questions are easy to do what?
Closed questions are easy to analyse statistically
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
Postal questionnaires can gain relatively large samples for the cost of a stamp.
With questionnaires, large amounts of data can be gathered quickly.
Postal and online questionnaires cost very little to get a lot of information.
2. Lack of investigator effects.
Questionnaires can be completed on your own and without researchers present, so there is no influence from a researcher, which reduces investigator effects.
3. Quantitative and qualitative analysis.
Closed questions are easy to analyse statistically, while open questions provide what?
Closed questions are easy to analyse statistically, while open questions provide:
1. Richer
2. Fuller
detail
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
Postal questionnaires can gain relatively large samples for the cost of a stamp.
With questionnaires, large amounts of data can be gathered quickly.
Postal and online questionnaires cost very little to get a lot of information.
2. Lack of investigator effects.
Questionnaires can be completed on your own and without researchers present, so there is no influence from a researcher, which reduces investigator effects.
3. Quantitative and qualitative analysis.
Closed questions are easy to analyse statistically, while open questions provide richer and fuller detail.
4. R what?
An advantage of questionnaires is replication
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
Postal questionnaires can gain relatively large samples for the cost of a stamp.
With questionnaires, large amounts of data can be gathered quickly.
Postal and online questionnaires cost very little to get a lot of information.
2. Lack of investigator effects.
Questionnaires can be completed on your own and without researchers present, so there is no influence from a researcher, which reduces investigator effects.
3. Quantitative and qualitative analysis.
Closed questions are easy to analyse statistically, while open questions provide richer and fuller detail.
4. Replication.
As questionnaires use what, they are what?
As questionnaires use standardised questions (the same for everyone), they are easy to replicate
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
Postal questionnaires can gain relatively large samples for the cost of a stamp.
With questionnaires, large amounts of data can be gathered quickly.
Postal and online questionnaires cost very little to get a lot of information.
2. Lack of investigator effects.
Questionnaires can be completed on your own and without researchers present, so there is no influence from a researcher, which reduces investigator effects.
3. Quantitative and qualitative analysis.
Closed questions are easy to analyse statistically, while open questions provide richer and fuller detail.
4. Replication.
As questionnaires use standardised questions (the same for everyone), they are easy to replicate.
This is particularly true of what?
This is particularly true of questionnaires using closed questions
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. M what?
A weakness of questionnaires is misunderstanding
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may do what?
Participants may misinterpret questions
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
Example
For example, what is meant by ‘Do you ‘usually’ do your homework?’
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
There can also be problems with what?
There can also be problems with:
- Technical terms
- Emotive language
- Leading questions
Weaknesses of questionnaires: 1. Misunderstanding. Participants may misinterpret questions. There can also be problems with technical terms, emotive language and leading questions. 2. What samples?
A weakness of questionnaires is biased samples
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
There can also be problems with technical terms, emotive language and leading questions.
2. Biased samples.
Questionnaires are suitable for people who are what?
Questionnaires are suitable for people who are:
1. Willing
2. Able to spend time
completing them
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
There can also be problems with technical terms, emotive language and leading questions.
2. Biased samples.
Questionnaires are suitable for people who are willing and able to spend time completing them.
Certain types of people may what?
Certain types of people may:
- Be more willing to fill in questionnaires
- Not be representative of the whole population
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
There can also be problems with technical terms, emotive language and leading questions.
2. Biased samples.
Questionnaires are suitable for people who are willing and able to spend time completing them,
Certain types of people may be more willing to fill in questionnaires and may not be representative of the whole population.
Questionnaires take time to complete.
Therefore, there may be certain types of people who are more likely to complete and return a questionnaire.
This volunteer sample might not be representative of the population as a whole and may skew the results of the research.
3. Low what?
A weakness of questionnaires is low response rates
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
There can also be problems with technical terms, emotive language and leading questions.
2. Biased samples.
Questionnaires are suitable for people who are willing and able to spend time completing them,
Certain types of people may be more willing to fill in questionnaires and may not be representative of the whole population.
Questionnaires take time to complete.
Therefore, there may be certain types of people who are more likely to complete and return a questionnaire.
This volunteer sample might not be representative of the population as a whole and may skew the results of the research.
3. Low response rates.
Questionnaires are a what research method, because they can get what?
Questionnaires are an uneconomical research method, because they can get very low return rates
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
There can also be problems with technical terms, emotive language and leading questions.
2. Biased samples.
Questionnaires are suitable for people who are willing and able to spend time completing them,
Certain types of people may be more willing to fill in questionnaires and may not be representative of the whole population.
Questionnaires take time to complete.
Therefore, there may be certain types of people who are more likely to complete and return a questionnaire.
This volunteer sample might not be representative of the population as a whole and may skew the results of the research.
3. Low response rates.
Questionnaires are an uneconomical research method, because they can get very low return rates.
4. What issues?
A weakness of questionnaires is superficial issues
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
There can also be problems with technical terms, emotive language and leading questions.
2. Biased samples.
Questionnaires are suitable for people who are willing and able to spend time completing them,
Certain types of people may be more willing to fill in questionnaires and may not be representative of the whole population.
Questionnaires take time to complete.
Therefore, there may be certain types of people who are more likely to complete and return a questionnaire.
This volunteer sample might not be representative of the population as a whole and may skew the results of the research.
3. Low response rates.
Questionnaires are an uneconomical research method, because they can get very low return rates.
4. Superficial issues.
Questionnaires, particularly those using what, are not suitable for what?
Questionnaires, particularly those using closed questions, are not suitable for sensitive issues that require detailing understanding
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
There can also be problems with technical terms, emotive language and leading questions.
2. Biased samples.
Questionnaires are suitable for people who are willing and able to spend time completing them,
Certain types of people may be more willing to fill in questionnaires and may not be representative of the whole population.
Questionnaires take time to complete.
Therefore, there may be certain types of people who are more likely to complete and return a questionnaire.
This volunteer sample might not be representative of the population as a whole and may skew the results of the research.
3. Low response rates.
Questionnaires are an uneconomical research method, because they can get very low return rates.
4. Superficial issues.
Questionnaires, particularly those using closed questions, are not suitable for sensitive issues that require detailed understanding.
5. What answers?
A weakness of questionnaires is social desirability/idealised answers
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
There can also be problems with technical terms, emotive language and leading questions.
2. Biased samples.
Questionnaires are suitable for people who are willing and able to spend time completing them,
Certain types of people may be more willing to fill in questionnaires and may not be representative of the whole population.
Questionnaires take time to complete.
Therefore, there may be certain types of people who are more likely to complete and return a questionnaire.
This volunteer sample might not be representative of the population as a whole and may skew the results of the research.
3. Low response rates.
Questionnaires are an uneconomical research method, because they can get very low return rates.
4. Superficial issues.
Questionnaires, particularly those using closed questions, are not suitable for sensitive issues that require detailed understanding.
5. Social desirability/idealised answers.
Participants may do what in order to give what?
Participants may lie in order to give answers expected of them
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
There can also be problems with technical terms, emotive language and leading questions.
2. Biased samples.
Questionnaires are suitable for people who are willing and able to spend time completing them,
Certain types of people may be more willing to fill in questionnaires and may not be representative of the whole population.
Questionnaires take time to complete.
Therefore, there may be certain types of people who are more likely to complete and return a questionnaire.
This volunteer sample might not be representative of the population as a whole and may skew the results of the research.
3. Low response rates.
Questionnaires are an uneconomical research method, because they can get very low return rates.
4. Superficial issues.
Questionnaires, particularly those using closed questions, are not suitable for sensitive issues that require detailed understanding.
5. Social desirability/idealised answers.
Participants may lie in order to give answers expected of them.
Example
For example, not revealing racist beliefs
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
There can also be problems with technical terms, emotive language and leading questions.
2. Biased samples.
Questionnaires are suitable for people who are willing and able to spend time completing them,
Certain types of people may be more willing to fill in questionnaires and may not be representative of the whole population.
Questionnaires take time to complete.
Therefore, there may be certain types of people who are more likely to complete and return a questionnaire.
This volunteer sample might not be representative of the population as a whole and may skew the results of the research.
3. Low response rates.
Questionnaires are an uneconomical research method, because they can get very low return rates.
4. Superficial issues.
Questionnaires, particularly those using closed questions, are not suitable for sensitive issues that require detailed understanding.
5. Social desirability/idealised answers.
Participants may lie in order to give answers expected of them, or may give what?
Participants may:
1. Lie in order to give answers expected of them
Or,
2. Give answers that reflect how they would like to be, rather than how they actually are
There are several important what in designing questionnaires that people will do what to?
There are several important considerations in designing questionnaires that people will:
1. Actually complete
2. Provide useful data
for
There are several important considerations in designing questionnaires that people will actually complete and provide useful data for:
1. Aims - Having an exact aim helps, because it is then easier to do what?
Having an exact aim helps, because it is then easier to write questions that address the aim
There are several important considerations in designing questionnaires that people will actually complete and provide useful data for:
- Aims - Having an exact aim helps, because it is then easier to write questions that address the aim.
- Length - Questionnaires should be what?
Questionnaires should be:
- Short
- To the point
There are several important considerations in designing questionnaires that people will actually complete and provide useful data for:
- Aims - Having an exact aim helps, because it is then easier to write questions that address the aim.
- Length - Questionnaires should be short and to the point, because what?
Questionnaires should be:
1. Short
2. To the point
,because the longer the questionnaire, the more likely it is that people will not complete it
There are several important considerations in designing questionnaires that people will actually complete and provide useful data for:
- Aims - Having an exact aim helps, because it is then easier to write questions that address the aim.
- Length - Questionnaires should be short and to the point, because the longer the questionnaire, the more likely it is that people will not complete it.
- Previous questionnaires - Use examples of questionnaires that were what, as what?
Use examples of questionnaires that were previously successful, as a basis for the questionnaire design
There are several important considerations in designing questionnaires that people will actually complete and provide useful data for:
- Aims - Having an exact aim helps, because it is then easier to write questions that address the aim.
- Length - Questionnaires should be short and to the point, because the longer the questionnaire, the more likely it is that people will not complete it.
- Previous questionnaires - Use examples of questionnaires that were previously successful, as a basis for the questionnaire design.
- Question formation - Questions should be what?
Questions should be:
- Concise
- Unambiguous
- Easily understood
There are several important considerations in designing questionnaires that people will actually complete and provide useful data for:
- Aims - Having an exact aim helps, because it is then easier to write questions that address the aim.
- Length - Questionnaires should be short and to the point, because the longer the questionnaire, the more likely it is that people will not complete it.
- Previous questionnaires - Use examples of questionnaires that were previously successful, as a basis for the questionnaire design.
- Question formation - Questions should be concise, unambiguous and easily understood.
- Pilot study - Questionnaires should be tested on people who can do what?
Questionnaires should be tested on people who can provide:
1. Detailed
2. Honest
feedback on all aspects of the design of the questionnaire
There are several important considerations in designing questionnaires that people will actually complete and provide useful data for:
- Aims - Having an exact aim helps, because it is then easier to write questions that address the aim.
- Length - Questionnaires should be short and to the point, because the longer the questionnaire, the more likely it is that people will not complete it.
- Previous questionnaires - Use examples of questionnaires that were previously successful, as a basis for the questionnaire design.
- Question formation - Questions should be concise, unambiguous and easily understood.
- Pilot study - Questionnaires should be tested on people who can provide detailed and honest feedback on all aspects of the design of the questionnaire.
- Measurement scales - Some questionnaires use measurement scales to assess what?
Some questionnaires use measurement scales to assess psychological:
1. Characteristics
Or,
2. Attitudes
There are several important considerations in designing questionnaires that people will actually complete and provide useful data for:
1. Aims - Having an exact aim helps, because it is then easier to write questions that address the aim.
2. Length - Questionnaires should be short and to the point, because the longer the questionnaire, the more likely it is that people will not complete it.
3. Previous questionnaires - Use examples of questionnaires that were previously successful, as a basis for the questionnaire design.
4. Question formation - Questions should be concise, unambiguous and easily understood.
5. Pilot study - Questionnaires should be tested on people who can provide detailed and honest feedback on all aspects of the design of the questionnaire.
6. Measurement scales - Some questionnaires use measurement scales to assess psychological characteristics, or attitudes.
These involve what?
These involve statements on which participants rate levels of:
1. Agreement
Or,
2. Disagreement
There are several important considerations in designing questionnaires that people will actually complete and provide useful data for:
1. Aims - Having an exact aim helps, because it is then easier to write questions that address the aim.
2. Length - Questionnaires should be short and to the point, because the longer the questionnaire, the more likely it is that people will not complete it.
3. Previous questionnaires - Use examples of questionnaires that were previously successful, as a basis for the questionnaire design.
4. Question formation - Questions should be concise, unambiguous and easily understood.
5. Pilot study - Questionnaires should be tested on people who can provide detailed and honest feedback on all aspects of the design of the questionnaire.
6. Measurement scales - Some questionnaires use measurement scales to assess psychological characteristics, or attitudes.
These involve statements on which participants rate levels of agreement, or disagreement.
Example
For example, ‘Rate your level of agreement with the following statement’
There are usually a number of statements on a particular topic and the answers to these statements are combined to create what?
There are usually a number of statements on a particular topic and the answers to these statements are combined to create a single score of attitude strength
There are usually a number of statements on a particular topic and the answers to these statements are combined to create a single score of attitude strength.
However, it is not easy for participants to judge answers, so many participants choose the middle score.
When this happens, it is impossible to know whether they what?
When this happens, it is impossible to know whether the participants:
1. Have no opinion
Or,
2. Cannot decide between their attitudes in both directions
There are usually a number of statements on a particular topic and the answers to these statements are combined to create a single score of attitude strength.
However, it is not easy for participants to judge answers, so many participants choose the middle score.
When this happens, it is impossible to know whether the participants have no opinion, or cannot decide between their attitudes in both directions.
The best known of these attitude scales is what?
The best known of these attitude scales is the Likert scale
Interviews
Interviews are a self-report method where participants answer questions in face-to-face situations
An example of an interview
An example of an interview is Bowlby’s (1944) study of maternal deprivation in juvenile thieves
How many main types of interviews are there?
There are 3 main types of interviews:
- Structured
- Unstructured
- Semi-structured
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
A structured interview involves what?
A structured interview involves predetermined identical closed questions being read to participants, with the interviewer writing down answers
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
A structured interview involves predetermined identical closed questions being read to participants, with the interviewer writing down answers.
Interviewers do not need what?
Interviewers do not need much training
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
A structured interview involves predetermined identical closed questions being read to participants, with the interviewer writing down answers.
Interviewers do not need much training, because such interviews are what?
Interviewers do not need much training, because such interviews are easy to conduct
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
An unstructured interview involves what?
An unstructured interview involves an informal discussion on a particular topic
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
An unstructured interview involves an informal discussion on a particular topic.
Interviewers can do what by asking follow-up questions?
Interviewers can explore interesting answers by asking follow-up questions
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
An unstructured interview involves an informal discussion on a particular topic.
Interviewers can explore interesting answers by asking follow-up questions.
Interviewers need what to conduct such interviews?
Interviewers need considerable:
1. Training
2. Skill
to conduct such interviews
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
A semi-structured interview involves what?
A semi-structured interview involves combining:
1. Structured
2. Unstructured
techniques
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
A semi-structured interview involves combining structured and unstructured techniques, producing what?
A semi-structured interview involves combining structured and unstructured techniques, producing:
1. Quantitative
2. Qualitative
data
Advantages of interviews:
1. What issues?
An advantage of interviews is complex issues
Advantages of interviews:
1. Complex issues.
Complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel how?
Complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel:
- Relaxed
- Able to talk
Advantages of interviews:
1. Complex issues.
Complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
This is particularly true of what interviews?
This is particularly true of unstructured interviews
Advantages of interviews:
1. Complex issues.
Complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
This is particularly true of unstructured interviews.
2. Ease what?
An advantage of interviews is to ease misunderstandings
Advantages of interviews:
1. Complex issues.
Complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
This is particularly true of unstructured interviews.
2. Ease misunderstandings.
Any misunderstood questions can be what?
Any misunderstood questions can be explained
Advantages of interviews:
1. Complex issues.
Complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
This is particularly true of unstructured interviews.
2. Ease misunderstandings.
Any misunderstood questions can be what and individual questions can be what, to reduce what?
Any:
1. Misunderstood questions can be explained
2. Individual questions can be adapted
,to reduce any misunderstanding
Advantages of interviews:
1. Complex issues.
Complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
This is particularly true of unstructured interviews.
2. Ease misunderstandings.
Any misunderstood questions can be explained and individual questions can be adapted so that they are understood by all participants.
3. Data what?
An advantage of interviews is data analysis
Advantages of interviews:
1. Complex issues.
Complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
This is particularly true of unstructured interviews.
2. Ease misunderstandings.
Any misunderstood questions can be explained and individual questions can be adapted so that they are understood by all participants.
3. Data analysis.
Semi-structured interviews produce what data?
Semi-structured interviews produce both:
1. Quantitative
2. Qualitative
data
Advantages of interviews:
1. Complex issues.
Complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
This is particularly true of unstructured interviews.
2. Ease misunderstandings.
Any misunderstood questions can be explained and individual questions can be adapted so that they are understood by all participants.
3. Data analysis.
Semi-structured interviews produce both quantitative and qualitative data, which can be used to do what?
Semi-structured interviews produce both:
1. Quantitative
2. Qualitative
data, which can be used to complement each other
Advantages of interviews:
1. Complex issues.
Complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
This is particularly true of unstructured interviews.
2. Ease misunderstandings.
Any misunderstood questions can be explained and individual questions can be adapted so that they are understood by all participants.
3. Data analysis.
Semi-structured interviews produce both quantitative and qualitative data, which can be used to complement each other.
Structured interviews produce what data?
Structured interviews produce quantitative data
Advantages of interviews:
1. Complex issues.
Complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
This is particularly true of unstructured interviews.
2. Ease misunderstandings.
Any misunderstood questions can be explained and individual questions can be adapted so that they are understood by all participants.
3. Data analysis.
Semi-structured interviews produce both quantitative and qualitative data, which can be used to complement each other.
Structured interviews produce quantitative data that can be easily what?
Structured interviews produce quantitative data that can be easily analysed
Advantages of interviews:
1. Complex issues.
Complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
This is particularly true of unstructured interviews.
2. Ease misunderstandings.
Any misunderstood questions can be explained and individual questions can be adapted so that they are understood by all participants.
3. Data analysis.
Semi-structured interviews produce both quantitative and qualitative data, which can be used to complement each other.
Structured interviews produce quantitative data that can be easily analysed.
4. R what?
An advantage of interviews is replication
Advantages of interviews:
1. Complex issues.
Complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
This is particularly true of unstructured interviews.
2. Ease misunderstandings.
Any misunderstood questions can be explained and individual questions can be adapted so that they are understood by all participants.
3. Data analysis.
Semi-structured interviews produce both quantitative and qualitative data, which can be used to complement each other.
Structured interviews produce quantitative data that can be easily analysed.
4. Replication.
The more what an interview, the easier it is to do what?
The more: 1. Standardised Or, 2. Structured an interview, the easier it is to replicate
Advantages of interviews:
1. Complex issues.
Complicated or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
This is particularly true of unstructured interviews.
2. Ease misunderstandings.
Any misunderstood questions can be explained and individual questions can be adapted so that they are understood by all participants.
3. Data analysis.
Semi-structured interviews produce both quantitative and qualitative data, which can be used to complement each other.
Structured interviews produce quantitative data that can be easily analysed.
4. Replication.
The more standardised or structured an interview, the easier it is to replicate.
Unstructured interviews are less easy to replicate, but it should be possible for what?
Unstructured interviews are less easy to replicate, but it should be possible for other researchers to review data produced
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. What effects?
A weakness of interviews is interviewer effects
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. Interviewer effects.
Interviewers may unconsciously do what?
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. Interviewer effects.
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, for example by their what?
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, for example by their appearance
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. Interviewer effects.
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, for example by their appearance.
Example
For example, women may be less willing to talk about sex with male interviewers
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. Interviewer effects.
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, for example by their appearance.
For example, women may be less willing to talk about sex with male interviewers.
Interviews are also subject to what?
Interviews are also subject to:
- Demand characteristics
- Social desirability bias
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. Interviewer effects.
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, for example by their appearance.
Interviews are also subject to demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
2. Interview what?
A weakness of interviews is interview training
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. Interviewer effects.
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, for example by their appearance.
Interviews are also subject to demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
2. Interview training.
What is required to carry out unstructured interviews?
A lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. Interviewer effects.
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, for example by their appearance.
Interviews are also subject to demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
2. Interview training.
A lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews, particularly concerning what?
A lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews, particularly concerning sensitive issues
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. Interviewer effects.
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, for example by their appearance.
Interviews are also subject to demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
2. Interview training.
A lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews, particularly concerning sensitive issues, and such interviewers are what?
A lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews, particularly concerning sensitive issues, and such interviewers are not easy to find
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. Interviewer effects.
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, for example by their appearance.
Interviews are also subject to demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
2. Interview training.
A lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews, particularly concerning sensitive issues, and such interviewers are not easy to find.
3. What issues?
A weakness of interviews is ethical issues
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. Interviewer effects.
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, for example by their appearance.
Interviews are also subject to demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
2. Interview training.
A lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews, particularly concerning sensitive issues, and such interviewers are not easy to find.
3. Ethical issues.
Participants may not know the what of an interview?
Participants may not know the true purpose of an interview
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. Interviewer effects.
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, for example by their appearance.
Interviews are also subject to demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
2. Interview training.
A lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews, particularly concerning sensitive issues, and such interviewers are not easy to find.
3. Ethical issues.
Participants may not know the true purpose of an interview and there is also the danger that what?
Participants may not know the true purpose of an interview and there is also the danger that participants may reveal more than they wish to
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. Interviewer effects.
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, for example by their appearance.
Interviews are also subject to demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
2. Interview training.
A lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews, particularly concerning sensitive issues, and such interviewers are not easy to find.
3. Ethical issues.
Participants may not know the true purpose of an interview and there is also the danger that participants may reveal more than they wish to.
4. Participant what?
A weakness of interviews is participant answers
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. Interviewer effects.
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, for example by their appearance.
Interviews are also subject to demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
2. Interview training.
A lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews, particularly concerning sensitive issues, and such interviewers are not easy to find.
3. Ethical issues.
Participants may not know the true purpose of an interview and there is also the danger that participants may reveal more than they wish to.
4. Participant answers.
Interviews are not suited to participants who what?
Interviews are not suited to participants who have difficulty putting their:
1. Feelings
2. Opinions
,ect into words
Aside from deciding whether to use a structured, unstructured or semi-structured interview and open or closed questions, decisions need to be made about what?
Aside from deciding whether to use:
1. A structured, unstructured or semi-structured interview
2. Open or closed questions
,decisions need to be made about who would make the most appropriate interviewer
Aside from deciding whether to use a structured, unstructured or semi-structured interview and open or closed questions, decisions need to be made about who would make the most appropriate interviewer.
Several what affect this decision?
Several interpersonal variables affect this decision
Aside from deciding whether to use a structured, unstructured or semi-structured interview and open or closed questions, decisions need to be made about who would make the most appropriate interviewer.
Several interpersonal variables affect this decision:
1. G and a?
An interpersonal variable that affects this decision is:
- Gender
- Age
Aside from deciding whether to use a structured, unstructured or semi-structured interview and open or closed questions, decisions need to be made about who would make the most appropriate interviewer.
Several interpersonal variables affect this decision:
1. Gender and age.
The sex and age of interviewers affect what?
The:
1. Sex
2. Age
of interviewers affect participants’ answers when topics are of a sensitive sexual nature
Aside from deciding whether to use a structured, unstructured or semi-structured interview and open or closed questions, decisions need to be made about who would make the most appropriate interviewer.
Several interpersonal variables affect this decision:
1. Gender and age.
The sex and age of interviewers affect participants’ answers when topics are of a sensitive sexual nature.
2. E?
An interpersonal variable that affects this decision is:
Ethnicity
Aside from deciding whether to use a structured, unstructured or semi-structured interview and open or closed questions, decisions need to be made about who would make the most appropriate interviewer.
Several interpersonal variables affect this decision:
1. Gender and age.
The sex and age of interviewers affect participants’ answers when topics are of a sensitive sexual nature.
2. Ethnicity.
Interviewers may have difficulty doing what?
Interviewers may have difficulty interviewing people from a different ethnic group to themselves
Aside from deciding whether to use a structured, unstructured or semi-structured interview and open or closed questions, decisions need to be made about who would make the most appropriate interviewer.
Several interpersonal variables affect this decision:
1. Gender and age.
The sex and age of interviewers affect participants’ answers when topics are of a sensitive sexual nature.
2. Ethnicity.
Interviewers may have difficulty interviewing people from a different ethnic group to themselves.
Who found that white participants did what?
Word et al. (1974) found that white participants spent 25% less time interviewing black job applicants than white applicants
Aside from deciding whether to use a structured, unstructured or semi-structured interview and open or closed questions, decisions need to be made about who would make the most appropriate interviewer.
Several interpersonal variables affect this decision:
1. Gender and age.
The sex and age of interviewers affect participants’ answers when topics are of a sensitive sexual nature.
2. Ethnicity.
Interviewers may have difficulty interviewing people from a different ethnic group to themselves.
Word et al. (1974) found that white participants spent 25% less time interviewing black job applicants than white applicants.
3. Personal what and what?
An interpersonal variable that affects this decision is:
- Personal characteristics
- Adopted role
Aside from deciding whether to use a structured, unstructured or semi-structured interview and open or closed questions, decisions need to be made about who would make the most appropriate interviewer.
Several interpersonal variables affect this decision:
1. Gender and age.
The sex and age of interviewers affect participants’ answers when topics are of a sensitive sexual nature.
2. Ethnicity.
Interviewers may have difficulty interviewing people from a different ethnic group to themselves.
Word et al. (1974) found that white participants spent 25% less time interviewing black job applicants than white applicants.
3. Personal characteristics and adopted role.
Interviewers can adopt what within an interview setting?
Interviewers can adopt different roles within an interview setting
Aside from deciding whether to use a structured, unstructured or semi-structured interview and open or closed questions, decisions need to be made about who would make the most appropriate interviewer.
Several interpersonal variables affect this decision:
1. Gender and age.
The sex and age of interviewers affect participants’ answers when topics are of a sensitive sexual nature.
2. Ethnicity.
Interviewers may have difficulty interviewing people from a different ethnic group to themselves.
Word et al. (1974) found that white participants spent 25% less time interviewing black job applicants than white applicants.
3. Personal characteristics and adopted role.
Interviewers can adopt different roles within an interview setting and what can also affect how someone comes across to the interviewee?
Interviewers can adopt different roles within an interview setting and:
1. The use of formal language
2. Accent
3. Appearance
can also affect how someone comes across to the interviewee
What is essential to successful interviewing?
Interviewer training is essential to successful interviewing
Interviewer training is essential to successful interviewing.
Interviewers need to do what and learn what?
Interviewers need to listen appropriately and learn when:
- To speak
- Not to speak
Interviewer training is essential to successful interviewing.
Interviewers need to listen appropriately and learn when to speak and not to speak.
What is important in helping to relax interviewees?
Non-verbal communication is important in helping to relax interviewees
Interviewer training is essential to successful interviewing.
Interviewers need to listen appropriately and learn when to speak and not to speak.
Non-verbal communication is important in helping to relax interviewees, so that they will do what?
Non-verbal communication is important in helping to relax interviewees, so that they will give natural answers
Interviewer training is essential to successful interviewing.
Interviewers need to listen appropriately and learn when to speak and not to speak.
Non-verbal communication is important in helping to relax interviewees, so that they will give natural answers.
What are best left to the end of the interview?
- Difficult
- Probing
questions about emotions are best left to the end of the interview
Interviewer training is essential to successful interviewing.
Interviewers need to listen appropriately and learn when to speak and not to speak.
Non-verbal communication is important in helping to relax interviewees, so that they will give natural answers.
Difficult and probing questions about emotions are best left to the end of the interview, when the interviewee is more likely to do what?
- Difficult
- Probing
questions about emotions are best left to the end of the interview, when the interviewee is more likely to be relaxed
Interviewer training is essential to successful interviewing.
Interviewers need to listen appropriately and learn when to speak and not to speak.
Non-verbal communication is important in helping to relax interviewees, so that they will give natural answers.
Difficult and probing questions about emotions are best left to the end of the interview, when the interviewee is more likely to be relaxed, whereas initial questions are better for what?
- Difficult
- Probing
questions about emotions are best left to the end of the interview, when the interviewee is more likely to be relaxed, whereas initial questions are better for gaining factual information
Surveys and self-report studies involve asking participants questions.
These can be written in the form of a questionnaire or asked, orally, in an interview.
Any survey is only ever as good as the questions asked.
It is very difficult to write good questions and all surveys need what?
It is very difficult to write good questions and all surveys need a pilot study (a practice run)
Surveys and self-report studies involve asking participants questions.
These can be written in the form of a questionnaire or asked, orally, in an interview.
Any survey is only ever as good as the questions asked.
It is very difficult to write good questions and all surveys need a pilot study (a practice run) to check that the questions are what?
It is very difficult to write good questions and all surveys need a pilot study (a practice run) to check that the questions are:
- Unambiguous
- Easy for participants to understand
Surveys and self-report studies involve asking participants questions.
These can be written in the form of a questionnaire or asked, orally, in an interview.
Any survey is only ever as good as the questions asked.
It is very difficult to write good questions and all surveys need a pilot study (a practice run) to check that the questions are unambiguous and easy for participants to understand.
This increases the what of the data collected?
This increases the:
1. Reliability
2. Validity
of the data collected
With questionnaires, respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions, usually concerning behaviour, opinions and attitudes.
There are 2 main types of questions asked, closed (fixed) questions and open questions.
Open questions generate what data?
Open questions generate qualitative data
With questionnaires, respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions, usually concerning behaviour, opinions and attitudes.
There are 2 main types of questions asked, closed (fixed) questions and open questions.
Closed (fixed) questions involve Yes/No answers, or a range of fixed responses.
They force participants to choose an option.
Such answers are easy to analyse, but restrict participants’ answers, as they lack what?
Such answers are easy to analyse, but restrict participants’ answers, as they lack detail
With questionnaires, respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions, usually concerning behaviour, opinions and attitudes.
There are 2 main types of questions asked, closed (fixed) questions and open questions.
Closed (fixed) questions involve Yes/No answers, or a range of fixed responses.
They force participants to do what?
Closed (fixed) questions force participants to choose an option
With questionnaires, respondents record answers to a pre-set list of questions, usually concerning behaviour, opinions and attitudes.
There are 2 main types of questions asked, closed (fixed) questions and open questions.
Closed (fixed) questions generate what data?
Closed (fixed) questions generate quantitative data
There are usually a number of statements on a particular topic and the answers to these statements are combined to create a single score of attitude strength.
However, it is not easy for participants to judge answers, so many participants choose the middle score.
When this happens, it is impossible to know whether the participants have no opinion, or cannot decide between their attitudes in both directions.
The best known of these attitude scales is the Likert scale.
The Likert scale does what?
The Likert scale assesses the strength of opinion
There are usually a number of statements on a particular topic and the answers to these statements are combined to create a single score of attitude strength.
However, it is not easy for participants to judge answers, so many participants choose the middle score.
When this happens, it is impossible to know whether the participants have no opinion, or cannot decide between their attitudes in both directions.
The best known of these attitude scales is the Likert scale.
The Likert scale assesses the strength of opinion and generates what data?
The Likert scale:
- Assesses the strength of opinion
- Generates quantitative data
There are usually a number of statements on a particular topic and the answers to these statements are combined to create a single score of attitude strength.
However, it is not easy for participants to judge answers, so many participants choose the middle score.
When this happens, it is impossible to know whether the participants have no opinion, or cannot decide between their attitudes in both directions.
The best known of these attitude scales is the Likert scale.
The Likert scale assesses the strength of opinion and generates quantitative data.
Participants are asked to do what using a scale?
Participants are asked to rate their feelings on a particular topic using a scale
There are usually a number of statements on a particular topic and the answers to these statements are combined to create a single score of attitude strength.
However, it is not easy for participants to judge answers, so many participants choose the middle score.
When this happens, it is impossible to know whether the participants have no opinion, or cannot decide between their attitudes in both directions.
The best known of these attitude scales is the Likert scale.
The Likert scale assesses the strength of opinion and generates quantitative data.
Participants are asked to rate their feelings on a particular topic using a scale.
Answers are then graded 1-5 to facilitate what?
Answers are then graded 1-5 to facilitate statistical analysis
There are usually a number of statements on a particular topic and the answers to these statements are combined to create a single score of attitude strength.
However, it is not easy for participants to judge answers, so many participants choose the middle score.
When this happens, it is impossible to know whether the participants have no opinion, or cannot decide between their attitudes in both directions.
The best known of these attitude scales is the Likert scale.
The Likert scale assesses the strength of opinion and generates quantitative data.
Participants are asked to rate their feelings on a particular topic using a scale.
Answers are then graded 1-5 to facilitate statistical analysis.
However, the problem with the Likert scale is that participants tend to do what?
The problem with the Likert scale is that participants tend to opt for middle values
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
An unstructured interview involves an informal discussion on a particular topic.
Interviewers can explore interesting answers by asking follow-up questions.
Interviewers need considerable training and skill to conduct such interviews.
Unstructured interviews start with what?
Unstructured interviews start with a topic:
1. Focus
Or,
2. Aim
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
An unstructured interview involves an informal discussion on a particular topic.
Interviewers can explore interesting answers by asking follow-up questions.
Interviewers need considerable training and skill to conduct such interviews.
Unstructured interviews start with a topic focus or aim and is more like a conversation with the direction being bet by those involved around what?
Unstructured interviews:
- Start with a topic focus or aim
- Is more like a conversation with the direction being bet by those involved around the topic
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
An unstructured interview involves an informal discussion on a particular topic.
Interviewers can explore interesting answers by asking follow-up questions.
Interviewers need considerable training and skill to conduct such interviews.
Unstructured interviews start with a topic focus or aim and is more like a conversation with the direction being bet by those involved around the topic.
Example
For example, in a setting between a patient and a therapist concerning marital problems, they may focus:
- On financial issues
- Not on a variety of topics like pressure of children, work, ect
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
An unstructured interview involves an informal discussion on a particular topic.
Interviewers can explore interesting answers by asking follow-up questions.
Interviewers need considerable training and skill to conduct such interviews.
Unstructured interviews start with a topic focus or aim and is more like a conversation with the direction being bet by those involved around the topic.
So the questions are mainly what?
So the questions are mainly open
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
A semi-structured interview involves combining structured and unstructured techniques, producing quantitative and qualitative data.
Semi-structured interviews are more in formal in that what?
Semi-structured interviews are more in formal in that questions are developed as you go along
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
A semi-structured interview involves combining structured and unstructured techniques, producing quantitative and qualitative data.
Semi-structured interviews are more in formal in that questions are developed as you go along.
Example
For example, the questions are similar to what a GP might say in an interview
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
A semi-structured interview involves combining structured and unstructured techniques, producing quantitative and qualitative data.
Semi-structured interviews are more in formal in that questions are developed as you go along.
For example, the questions are similar to what a GP might say in an interview.
The GP starts with a set of pre-determined questions, but further questions are developed as what?
The GP starts with a set of pre-determined questions, but further questions are developed as a response to your answers
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
A semi-structured interview involves combining structured and unstructured techniques, producing quantitative and qualitative data.
Semi-structured interviews are more in formal in that questions are developed as you go along.
For example, the questions are similar to what a GP might say in an interview.
The GP starts with a set of pre-determined questions, but further questions are developed as a response to your answers.
This is also referred to as the what method?
This is also referred to as the clinical method
There are 3 main types of interviews - Structured, unstructured and semi-structured.
A semi-structured interview involves combining structured and unstructured techniques, producing quantitative and qualitative data.
Semi-structured interviews are more in formal in that questions are developed as you go along.
For example, the questions are similar to what a GP might say in an interview.
The GP starts with a set of pre-determined questions, but further questions are developed as a response to your answers.
This is also referred to as the clinical method.
So the questions are a mixture of what?
So the questions are a mixture of:
1. Open
2. Closed (fixed)
questions
An example of a structured interview
An example of a structured interview is when:
- Gilligan
- Attanucci
(1988) asked a set of questions about moral conflict and choice using closed questions
An example of a semi-structured interview
An example of a semi-structured interview is when Kohlberg (1978):
- Interviewed boys about an imaginary situation
- Then asked them a set of questions about the situation and their opinions on it
Surveys, particularly questionnaires, are useful for gathering large amounts of data, because they are the least what method?
Surveys, particularly questionnaires, are useful for gathering large amounts of data, because they are the least time-consuming method
Surveys, particularly questionnaires, are useful for gathering large amounts of data, because they are the least time-consuming method.
Surveys tend not to be used by child psychologists, because there are problems of what?
Surveys tend not to be used by child psychologists, because there are problems of understanding
Surveys, particularly questionnaires, are useful for gathering large amounts of data, because they are the least time-consuming method.
Surveys tend not to be used by child psychologists, because there are problems of understanding.
The best questionnaires tend to use a variety of types of questions.
Interviews allow the researcher to do what?
Interviews allow the researcher to:
- Elaborate on questions
- Form a relationship with the participant
Surveys, particularly questionnaires, are useful for gathering large amounts of data, because they are the least time-consuming method.
Surveys tend not to be used by child psychologists, because there are problems of understanding.
The best questionnaires tend to use a variety of types of questions.
Interviews allow the researcher to elaborate on questions and form a relationship with the participant.
However, this can lead to what?
This can lead to:
- Researcher bias
- Increased demand characteristics
Surveys, particularly questionnaires, are useful for gathering large amounts of data, because they are the least time-consuming method.
Surveys tend not to be used by child psychologists, because there are problems of understanding.
The best questionnaires tend to use a variety of types of questions.
Interviews allow the researcher to elaborate on questions and form a relationship with the participant.
However, this can lead to researcher bias and increased demand characteristics.
Interviews are also what?
Interviews are also:
- Difficult
- Time-consuming to analyse
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
Postal questionnaires can gain relatively large samples for the cost of a stamp.
With questionnaires, large amounts of data can be what?
With questionnaires, large amounts of data can be gathered quickly
One problem with self-report techniques is that there is a lack of what, because participants can lie?
One problem with self-report techniques is that there is a lack of validity, because participants can lie
Respondent
A respondent is a person who answers a questionnaire
Generalise
Generalise is the extent to which findings are applicable to the wider population
Response bias
Response bias is where respondents represent certain types of people, but not others
Contingent questions
Contingent questions are questions that are answered only if the respondent gives a particular response to a previous question
Contingent questions are questions that are answered only if the respondent gives a particular response to a previous question.
This avoids what?
This avoids asking questions of people that do not apply to them
Contingent questions are questions that are answered only if the respondent gives a particular response to a previous question.
This avoids asking questions of people that do not apply to them.
Example
For example, asking men if they have ever been pregnant
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
Postal questionnaires can gain relatively large samples for the cost of a stamp.
2. Lack of investigator effects.
Questionnaires can be completed on your own and without researchers present, so there is no what, which reduces investigator effects?
Questionnaires can be completed:
1. On your own
2. Without researchers present
,so there is no influence from a researcher, which reduces investigator effects
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
Postal questionnaires can gain relatively large samples for the cost of a stamp.
With questionnaires, large amounts of data can be gathered quickly.
What questionnaires cost very little to get a lot of information?
- Postal
- Online
questionnaires cost very little to get a lot of information
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
Postal questionnaires can gain relatively large samples for the cost of a stamp.
With questionnaires, large amounts of data can be gathered quickly.
Postal and online questionnaires cost very little to get a lot of information.
2. Lack of investigator effects.
Questionnaires can be completed on your own and without researchers present, so there is no influence from a researcher, which reduces investigator effects.
3. Quantitative and qualitative analysis.
Closed questions are easy to analyse statistically, while open questions provide richer and fuller detail.
4. Replication.
As questionnaires use standardised questions (the same for everyone), they are easy to replicate.
This is particularly true of questionnaires using closed questions.
Questionnaires are easy to replicate, because they use standardised questions, so everyone answers the same question, especially if they are what questions?
Questionnaires are easy to replicate, because they use standardised questions, so everyone answers the same question, especially if they are closed questions
Advantages of questionnaires:
1. They are cheap and quick.
Compared to other methods, large amounts of information can be gathered in a short period.
Postal questionnaires can gain relatively large samples for the cost of a stamp.
With questionnaires, large amounts of data can be gathered quickly.
Postal and online questionnaires cost very little to get a lot of information.
2. Lack of investigator effects.
Questionnaires can be completed on your own and without researchers present, so there is no influence from a researcher, which reduces investigator effects.
3. Quantitative and qualitative analysis.
Closed questions are easy to analyse statistically, while open questions provide richer and fuller detail.
4. Replication.
As questionnaires use standardised questions (the same for everyone), they are easy to replicate.
This is particularly true of questionnaires using closed questions.
Questionnaires are easy to replicate, because they use standardised questions, so everyone answers the same question, especially if they are closed questions.
What does this do?
This adds reliability to the method
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
There can also be problems with technical terms, emotive language and leading questions.
2. Biased samples.
Questionnaires are suitable for people who are willing and able to spend time completing them,
Certain types of people may be more willing to fill in questionnaires and may not be representative of the whole population.
Questionnaires take what to complete?
Questionnaires take time to complete
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
There can also be problems with technical terms, emotive language and leading questions.
2. Biased samples.
Questionnaires are suitable for people who are willing and able to spend time completing them,
Certain types of people may be more willing to fill in questionnaires and may not be representative of the whole population.
Questionnaires take time to complete.
Therefore, there may be certain types of people who are more likely to do what?
Therefore, there may be certain types of people who are more likely to:
1. Complete
2. Return
a questionnaire
Weaknesses of questionnaires:
1. Misunderstanding.
Participants may misinterpret questions.
There can also be problems with technical terms, emotive language and leading questions.
2. Biased samples.
Questionnaires are suitable for people who are willing and able to spend time completing them,
Certain types of people may be more willing to fill in questionnaires and may not be representative of the whole population.
Questionnaires take time to complete.
Therefore, there may be certain types of people who are more likely to complete and return a questionnaire.
This volunteer sample might what and may do what?
This volunteer sample:
- Might not be representative of the population as a whole
- May skew the results of the research
Weaknesses of interviews:
1. Interviewer effects.
Interviewers may unconsciously bias answers, for example by their appearance.
Interviews are also subject to demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
2. Interview training.
A lot of skill is required to carry out unstructured interviews, particularly concerning sensitive issues, and such interviewers are not easy to find.
3. Ethical issues.
Participants may not know the true purpose of an interview and there is also the danger that participants may reveal more than they wish to.
4. Participant answers.
Interviews are not suited to participants who have difficulty putting their feelings, opinions, ect into words.
Interviews are not always suitable for everyone, because some people may not be able to do what or may prefer what as opposed to what?
Interviews are not always suitable for everyone, because some people may:
1. Not be able to put their opinions, or feelings into words
Or,
2. Prefer writing as opposed to talking
Advantages of interviews:
1. Complex issues.
Complicated, or sensitive issues can be dealt with in face-to-face interviews by making participants feel relaxed and able to talk.
This is particularly true of unstructured interviews.
2. Ease misunderstandings.
Any misunderstood questions can be explained and any individual questions can be adapted, to reduce any misunderstanding, so that they are what?
Any:
1. Misunderstood questions can be explained
2. Individual questions can be adapted
,to reduce any misunderstanding, so that they are understood by all participants
