2.1: Long-term memory (LTM) Flashcards
Long-term memory (LTM)
Long-term memory (LTM) is a permanent memory store holding limitless amounts of information for long periods
Long-term memory (LTM) is the potentially permanent memory store for information that has been what?
Long-term memory (LTM) is the potentially permanent memory store for information that has been rehearsed for a prolonged time
LTMs tend to be coded how?
LTMs tend to be coded semantically
LTMs tend to be coded semantically (in terms of what)?
LTMs tend to be coded semantically (in terms of meaning)
LTMs tend to be coded semantically.
Although this material is stored in LTM, when we want to recall it, it has to be transferred back into STM by what?
Although this material is stored in LTM, when we want to recall it, it has to be transferred back into STM by a process called retrieval
LTMs tend to be coded semantically.
Although this material is stored in LTM, when we want to recall it, it has to be transferred back into STM by a process called retrieval.
According to the multi-store model (MSM), this is true of what?
According to the multi-store model (MSM), this is true of all our memories
LTMs tend to be coded semantically.
Although this material is stored in LTM, when we want to recall it, it has to be transferred back into STM by a process called retrieval.
According to the multi-store model (MSM), this is true of all our memories.
None of them are what?
None of them are recalled directly from LTM
LTM involves storing information over lengthy periods of time, indeed for a whole lifetime, with information stored for longer than how long counting as LTM?
LTM involves storing information over lengthy periods of time, indeed for a whole lifetime, with information stored for longer than 30 seconds counting as LTM
LTM involves storing information over lengthy periods of time, indeed for a whole lifetime, with information stored for longer than 30 seconds counting as LTM.
All information within LTM will have originally done what?
All information within LTM will have originally passed through the:
- Sensory register
- Short-term memory
LTM involves storing information over lengthy periods of time, indeed for a whole lifetime, with information stored for longer than 30 seconds counting as LTM.
All information within LTM will have originally passed through the sensory register and the short-term memory, though may have undergone what during the process?
All information within LTM will have originally passed through the:
1. Sensory register
2. Short-term memory
,though may have undergone different forms of processing during the process
LTM involves storing information over lengthy periods of time, indeed for a whole lifetime, with information stored for longer than 30 seconds counting as LTM.
All information within LTM will have originally passed through the sensory register and the short-term memory, though may have undergone different forms of processing during the process.
Research indicates that there are several different types of LTM and LTMs are not of equal what?
Research indicates that there are several different types of LTM and LTMs are not of equal strength
LTM involves storing information over lengthy periods of time, indeed for a whole lifetime, with information stored for longer than 30 seconds counting as LTM.
All information within LTM will have originally passed through the sensory register and the short-term memory, though may have undergone different forms of processing during the process.
Research indicates that there are several different types of LTM and LTMs are not of equal strength.
Strong LTMs can be what?
Strong LTMs can be retrieved easily
LTM involves storing information over lengthy periods of time, indeed for a whole lifetime, with information stored for longer than 30 seconds counting as LTM.
All information within LTM will have originally passed through the sensory register and the short-term memory, though may have undergone different forms of processing during the process.
Research indicates that there are several different types of LTM and LTMs are not of equal strength.
Strong LTMs can be retrieved easily, like what?
Strong LTMs can be retrieved easily, like when your birthday is
LTM involves storing information over lengthy periods of time, indeed for a whole lifetime, with information stored for longer than 30 seconds counting as LTM.
All information within LTM will have originally passed through the sensory register and the short-term memory, though may have undergone different forms of processing during the process.
Research indicates that there are several different types of LTM and LTMs are not of equal strength.
Strong LTMs can be retrieved easily, like when your birthday is, but what LTMs may need what?
Strong LTMs can be retrieved easily, like when your birthday is, but weaker LTMs may need more prompting
LTMs are not what?
LTMs are not passive
LTMs are not passive (what)?
LTMs are not passive (unchanging)
LTMs are not passive (unchanging).
What does this mean?
This means that over time they may: 1. Change Or, 2. Merge with other LTMs
LTMs are not passive (unchanging).
This means that over time they may change or merge with other LTMs.
This is why memories aren’t necessarily what?
This is why memories aren’t necessarily:
1. Constant
Or,
2. Accurate
LTMs are not passive (unchanging).
This means that over time they may change or merge with other LTMs.
This is why memories aren’t necessarily constant or accurate.
There are several explanations for forgetting from LTM.
Research also indicates that the process of what is spread through what?
Research also indicates that the process of:
1. Shaping
2. Storing
LTMs is spread through multiple brain regions
Coding in the LTM:
Coding of information will be stronger (and thus the memory more what), the what?
Coding of information will be stronger (and thus the memory more retrievable), the deeper the processing
Coding in the LTM:
Coding of information will be stronger (and thus the memory more retrievable), the deeper the processing of a what?
Coding of information will be stronger (and thus the memory more retrievable), the deeper the processing of a stimulus that occurs while it is being experienced
Coding in the LTM:
Coding of information will be stronger (and thus the memory more retrievable), the deeper the processing of a stimulus that occurs while it is being experienced.
With what material, coding in LTM is mainly what?
With verbal material, coding in LTM is mainly semantic
Coding in the LTM:
Coding of information will be stronger (and thus the memory more retrievable), the deeper the processing of a stimulus that occurs while it is being experienced.
With verbal material, coding in LTM is mainly semantic (based on what)?
With verbal material, coding in LTM is mainly semantic (based on meaning)
Coding in the LTM:
Coding of information will be stronger (and thus the memory more retrievable), the deeper the processing of a stimulus that occurs while it is being experienced.
With verbal material, coding in LTM is mainly semantic (based on meaning), though coding occurs in other forms too, with research (for example who’s research when) indicating what?
With verbal material, coding in LTM is mainly semantic (based on meaning), though coding occurs in other forms too, with research (for example Baddeley’s research in 1966) indicating:
- A visual code
- An acoustic code
Research for coding in the LTM:
Who (what year) gave participants how many drawings?
Frost (1972) gave participants 16 drawings
Research for coding in the LTM:
Frost (1972) gave participants 16 drawings in how many categories?
Frost (1972) gave participants 16 drawings in 4 categories
Research for coding in the LTM:
Frost (1972) gave participants 16 drawings in 4 categories (for example what)?
Frost (1972) gave participants 16 drawings in 4 categories (for example animals)
Research for coding in the LTM:
Frost (1972) gave participants 16 drawings in 4 categories (for example animals), differing in what?
Frost (1972) gave participants 16 drawings in 4 categories (for example animals), differing in visual orientation
Research for coding in the LTM:
Frost (1972) gave participants 16 drawings in 4 categories (for example animals), differing in visual orientation, like what?
Frost (1972) gave participants 16 drawings in 4 categories (for example animals), differing in visual orientation, like the angle of viewing perspective
Research for coding in the LTM:
Frost (1972) gave participants 16 drawings in 4 categories (for example animals), differing in visual orientation, like the angle of viewing perspective.
The order of what suggested that participants used what?
The order of recall of items suggested that participants used:
1. Visual
2. Semantic
coding
Research for coding in the LTM:
Frost (1972) gave participants 16 drawings in 4 categories (for example animals), differing in visual orientation, like the angle of viewing perspective.
The order of recall of items suggested that participants used visual and semantic coding, implying what?
The order of recall of items suggested that participants used visual and semantic coding, implying evidence for a: 1. Visual as well as 2. Semantic code in LTM
Research for coding in the LTM:
Who (what year) showed that what also occurs in LTM?
Nelson and Rothbart (1972) showed that acoustic coding also occurs in LTM
Research for coding in the LTM:
Nelson and Rothbart (1972) showed that acoustic coding also occurs in LTM, as participants did what?
Nelson and Rothbart (1972) showed that acoustic coding also occurs in LTM, as participants made recall errors involving homophones
Research for coding in the LTM:
Nelson and Rothbart (1972) showed that acoustic coding also occurs in LTM, as participants made recall errors involving homophones, again suggesting what?
Nelson and Rothbart (1972) showed that acoustic coding also occurs in LTM, as participants made recall errors involving homophones, again suggesting that coding in LTM has several varieties
Research for coding in the LTM:
It’s difficult to see how what could be coded semantically?
It’s difficult to see how:
1. Smells
2. Tastes
could be coded semantically
Research for coding in the LTM:
It’s difficult to see how smells and tastes could be coded semantically and reason suggests that what?
It’s difficult to see how smells and tastes could be coded semantically and reason suggests that songs are encoded acoustically
Research for coding in the LTM:
It’s difficult to see how smells and tastes could be coded semantically and reason suggests that songs are encoded acoustically, supporting the idea of what?
It’s difficult to see how smells and tastes could be coded semantically and reason suggests that songs are encoded acoustically, supporting the idea of several forms of encoding in LTM
Research for coding in the LTM:
Different types of LTM involve different what?
Different types of LTM involve different brain areas
Research for coding in the LTM:
Different types of LTM involve different brain areas, with research suggesting that they are encoded in different ways, which implies that there are varying forms of what within LTM?
Different types of LTM involve different brain areas, with research suggesting that they are encoded in different ways, which implies that there are varying forms of coding within LTM
Capacity of the LTM:
The potential capacity of LTM is what?
The potential capacity of LTM is unlimited
Capacity of the LTM:
The potential capacity of LTM is unlimited.
Information may be lost due to what?
Information may be lost due to:
- Decay
- Interference
Capacity of the LTM:
The potential capacity of LTM is unlimited.
Information may be lost due to decay and interference, but such losses don’t occur due to what?
Information may be lost due to:
1. Decay
2. Interference
,but such losses don’t occur due to limitation of capacity
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Who (what year) estimated the number of possible what?
Anokhin (1973) estimated the number of possible neuronal connections in the human brain
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Anokhin (1973) estimated the number of possible neuronal connections in the human brain as what?
Anokhin (1973) estimated the number of possible neuronal connections in the human brain as 1 followed by 10.5 million kilometres of noughts
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Anokhin (1973) estimated the number of possible neuronal connections in the human brain as 1 followed by 10.5 million kilometres of noughts.
He concluded that ‘no human …’
He concluded that ‘no human yet exists who can use all the potential of their brain’
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Anokhin (1973) estimated the number of possible neuronal connections in the human brain as 1 followed by 10.5 million kilometres of noughts.
He concluded that ‘no human yet exists who can use all the potential of their brain,’ suggesting what?
He concluded that ‘no human yet exists who can use all the potential of their brain,’ suggesting that the capacity of LTM is limitless
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Who (what year) created a diary?
Wagenaar (1986) created a diary
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Wagenaar (1986) created a diary of what?
Wagenaar (1986) created a diary of 2,400 events
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Wagenaar (1986) created a diary of 2,400 events over how long?
Wagenaar (1986) created a diary of 2,400 events over 6 years
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Wagenaar (1986) created a diary of 2,400 events over 6 years and tested himself on what?
Wagenaar (1986):
- Created a diary of 2,400 events over 6 years
- Tested himself on recall of events
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Wagenaar (1986) created a diary of 2,400 events over 6 years and tested himself on recall of events rather than what?
Wagenaar (1986):
1. Created a diary of 2,400 events over 6 years
2. Tested himself on recall of events
,rather than dates
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Wagenaar (1986) created a diary of 2,400 events over 6 years and tested himself on recall of events rather than dates, finding that he too had what?
Wagenaar (1986):
1. Created a diary of 2,400 events over 6 years
2. Tested himself on recall of events
,rather than dates, finding that he too had excellent recall
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Wagenaar (1986) created a diary of 2,400 events over 6 years and tested himself on recall of events rather than dates, finding that he too had excellent recall, again suggesting what?
Wagenaar (1986):
1. Created a diary of 2,400 events over 6 years
2. Tested himself on recall of events
,rather than dates, finding that he too had excellent recall, again suggesting that the capacity of LTM is extremely large
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Wagenaar (1986) created a diary of 2,400 events over 6 years and tested himself on recall of events rather than dates, finding that he too had excellent recall, again suggesting that the capacity of LTM is extremely large.
Diary studies, however, are a type of what?
Diary studies, however, are a type of case study
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Wagenaar (1986) created a diary of 2,400 events over 6 years and tested himself on recall of events rather than dates, finding that he too had excellent recall, again suggesting that the capacity of LTM is extremely large.
Diary studies, however, are a type of case study and therefore are what?
Diary studies, however, are a type of case study and therefore are not representative of the general population
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Wagenaar (1986) created a diary of 2,400 events over 6 years and tested himself on recall of events rather than dates, finding that he too had excellent recall, again suggesting that the capacity of LTM is extremely large.
Diary studies, however, are a type of case study and therefore are not representative of the general population and there could also be what?
Diary studies, however, are a type of case study and therefore are not representative of the general population and there could also be an element of bias
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Wagenaar (1986) created a diary of 2,400 events over 6 years and tested himself on recall of events rather than dates, finding that he too had excellent recall, again suggesting that the capacity of LTM is extremely large.
Diary studies, however, are a type of case study and therefore are not representative of the general population and there could also be an element of bias, as people are doing what?
Diary studies, however, are a type of case study and therefore are not representative of the general population and there could also be an element of bias, as people are testing themselves
Research for capacity of the LTM:
Why is the capacity of LTM assumed to be limitless?
The capacity of LTM is assumed to be limitless, because research has not been able to determine a finite capacity
Research for capacity of the LTM:
There may be a what to LTM?
There may be an evolutionary basis to LTM
Research for capacity of the LTM:
There may be an evolutionary basis to LTM.
Animal studies, like that by who (what year), showed that pigeons can do what?
Animal studies, like that by Fagot and Cook (1996), showed that pigeons can memorise 1,200 picture response associations
Research for capacity of the LTM:
There may be an evolutionary basis to LTM.
Animal studies, like that by Fagot and Cook (1996), showed that pigeons can memorise 1,200 picture response associations.
What still hadn’t reached their capacity after how long of training?
Baboons still hadn’t reached their capacity after 3 years of training
Research for capacity of the LTM:
There may be an evolutionary basis to LTM.
Animal studies, like that by Fagot and Cook (1996), showed that pigeons can memorise 1,200 picture response associations.
Baboons still hadn’t reached their capacity after 3 years of training, memorising what?
Baboons still hadn’t reached their capacity after 3 years of training, memorising 5,000 associations
Research for capacity of the LTM:
There may be an evolutionary basis to LTM.
Animal studies, like that by Fagot and Cook (1996), showed that pigeons can memorise 1,200 picture response associations.
Baboons still hadn’t reached their capacity after 3 years of training, memorising 5,000 associations.
This suggests that what has a survival value?
This suggests that an enlarged memory capacity has a survival value
Research for capacity of the LTM:
There may be an evolutionary basis to LTM.
Animal studies, like that by Fagot and Cook (1996), showed that pigeons can memorise 1,200 picture response associations.
Baboons still hadn’t reached their capacity after 3 years of training, memorising 5,000 associations.
This suggests that an enlarged memory capacity has a survival value, which has been what by what?
This suggests that an enlarged memory capacity has a survival value, which has been acted upon by natural selection
Duration of the LTM:
Duration of the LTM depends on what?
Duration of the LTM depends on an individual’s lifespan
Duration of the LTM:
Why does duration of the LTM depend on an individual’s lifespan?
Duration of the LTM depends on an individual’s lifespan, because memories can last for a lifetime
Duration of the LTM:
Duration of the LTM depends on an individual’s lifespan, because memories can last for a lifetime.
Many elderly people have what?
Many elderly people have detailed childhood memories
Duration of the LTM:
Duration of the LTM depends on an individual’s lifespan, because memories can last for a lifetime.
Many elderly people have detailed childhood memories.
Items in LTM have a longer duration if what?
Items in LTM have a longer duration if originally well coded
Duration of the LTM:
Duration of the LTM depends on an individual’s lifespan, because memories can last for a lifetime.
Many elderly people have detailed childhood memories.
Items in LTM have a longer duration if originally well coded and certain LTMs have a longer what?
Items in LTM have a longer duration if originally well coded and certain LTMs have a longer duration
Duration of the LTM:
Duration of the LTM depends on an individual’s lifespan, because memories can last for a lifetime.
Many elderly people have detailed childhood memories.
Items in LTM have a longer duration if originally well coded and certain LTMs have a longer duration, like those based on what rather than what?
Items in LTM have a longer duration if originally well coded and certain LTMs have a longer duration, like those based on:
1. Skills
rather than
2. Facts
Duration of the LTM:
Duration of the LTM depends on an individual’s lifespan, because memories can last for a lifetime.
Many elderly people have detailed childhood memories.
Items in LTM have a longer duration if originally well coded and certain LTMs have a longer duration, like those based on skills rather than facts.
Material in STM that isn’t rehearsed is quickly forgotten, but information in LTM doesn’t have to be what to be retained?
Material in STM that isn’t rehearsed is quickly forgotten, but information in LTM doesn’t have to be continually rehearsed to be retained
Research for duration of the LTM:
Who (what year) showed 400 participants aged between what?
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between:
1. 17
2. 74
years old
Research for duration of the LTM:
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old what?
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old a:
- Set of photos
- List of names
Research for duration of the LTM:
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were what?
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old a:
1. Set of photos
2. List of names
,some of which were ex-school friends
Research for duration of the LTM:
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends, and asked them to identify what?
Bahrick et al. (1975):
- Showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends
- Asked them to identify ex-school friends
Research for duration of the LTM:
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends, and asked them to identify ex-school friends.
Those who’d left high school in the last 15 years identified what % of faces and names?
Those who’d left high school in the last 15 years identified 90% of:
- Faces
- Names
Research for duration of the LTM:
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends, and asked them to identify ex-school friends.
Those who’d left high school in the last 15 years identified 90% of faces and names, while those who’d left how many years previously identified what % of names and what % of faces?
Those who’d left high school in the last 15 years identified 90% of faces and names, while those who’d left 48 years previously identified:
- 80% of names
- 70% of faces
Research for duration of the LTM:
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends, and asked them to identify ex-school friends.
Those who’d left high school in the last 15 years identified 90% of faces and names, while those who’d left 48 years previously identified 80% of names and 70% of faces, suggesting what?
Those who’d left high school in the last 15 years identified 90% of faces and names, while those who’d left 48 years previously identified:
1. 80% of names
2. 70% of faces
,suggesting that memory for faces is long lasting
Research for duration of the LTM:
Who (what year) asked participants to identify odours?
Goldman and Seamon (1992) asked participants to identify odours
Research for duration of the LTM:
Goldman and Seamon (1992) asked participants to identify what odours?
Goldman and Seamon (1992) asked participants to identify odours:
- Of everyday products experienced in the last 2 years
- Not experienced since childhood
Research for duration of the LTM:
Goldman and Seamon (1992) asked participants to identify odours of everyday products experienced in the last 2 years and odours not experienced since childhood.
Identification (by what) was better for what odours?
Identification (by name) was better for more recent odours
Research for duration of the LTM: Goldman and Seamon (1992) asked participants to identify odours of everyday products experienced in the last 2 years and odours not experienced since childhood. Although identification (by name) was better for more recent odours, there was what of less-recent odours?
Although identification (by name) was better for more recent odours, there was significant identification of less-recent odours
Research for duration of the LTM: Goldman and Seamon (1992) asked participants to identify odours of everyday products experienced in the last 2 years and odours not experienced since childhood. Although identification (by name) was better for more recent odours, there was significant identification of less-recent odours, suggesting that duration of what information in LTM is very what?
Although identification (by name) was better for more recent odours, there was significant identification of less-recent odours, suggesting that duration of olfactory (smell-based) information in LTM is very long-lasting
Research for duration of the LTM:
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends, and asked them to identify ex-school friends.
Those who’d left high school in the last 15 years identified 90% of faces and names, while those who’d left 48 years previously identified 80% of names and 70% of faces, suggesting that memory for faces is long lasting.
One strength of Bahrick et al.’s study
One strength of Bahrick et al.’s study is that it has higher external validity
Research for duration of the LTM:
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends, and asked them to identify ex-school friends.
Those who’d left high school in the last 15 years identified 90% of faces and names, while those who’d left 48 years previously identified 80% of names and 70% of faces, suggesting that memory for faces is long lasting.
One strength of Bahrick et al.’s study is that it has higher external validity, because what were studied?
One strength of Bahrick et al.’s study is that it has higher external validity, because real-life meaningful memories were studied
Research for duration of the LTM:
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends, and asked them to identify ex-school friends.
Those who’d left high school in the last 15 years identified 90% of faces and names, while those who’d left 48 years previously identified 80% of names and 70% of faces, suggesting that memory for faces is long lasting.
One strength of Bahrick et al.’s study is that it has higher external validity, because real-life meaningful memories were studied.
When studies on LTM have been conducted with what to be remembered, recall rates were what?
When studies on LTM have been conducted with meaningless pictures to be remembered, recall rates were lower
Research for duration of the LTM:
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends, and asked them to identify ex-school friends.
Those who’d left high school in the last 15 years identified 90% of faces and names, while those who’d left 48 years previously identified 80% of names and 70% of faces, suggesting that memory for faces is long lasting.
One strength of Bahrick et al.’s study is that it has higher external validity, because real-life meaningful memories were studied.
When studies on LTM have been conducted with meaningless pictures to be remembered, recall rates were lower.
Example
For example, this was found in Shepard’s 1967 study
Research for duration of the LTM:
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends, and asked them to identify ex-school friends.
Those who’d left high school in the last 15 years identified 90% of faces and names, while those who’d left 48 years previously identified 80% of names and 70% of faces, suggesting that memory for faces is long lasting.
One strength of Bahrick et al.’s study is that it has higher external validity, because real-life meaningful memories were studied.
When studies on LTM have been conducted with meaningless pictures to be remembered, recall rates were lower.
For example, this was found in Shepard’s 1967 study.
The downside of such real-life research is that what are not controlled?
The downside of such real-life research is that confounding variables are not controlled
Research for duration of the LTM:
Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years old a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex-school friends, and asked them to identify ex-school friends.
Those who’d left high school in the last 15 years identified 90% of faces and names, while those who’d left 48 years previously identified 80% of names and 70% of faces, suggesting that memory for faces is long lasting.
One strength of Bahrick et al.’s study is that it has higher external validity, because real-life meaningful memories were studied.
When studies on LTM have been conducted with meaningless pictures to be remembered, recall rates were lower.
For example, this was found in Shepard’s 1967 study.
The downside of such real-life research is that confounding variables are not controlled, such as what?
The downside of such real-life research is that confounding variables are not controlled, such as the fact that Bahrick’s participants may have:
- Looked at their yearbook photos
- Rehearsed their memory over the years
