7.1: Observational techniques Flashcards
Observations involve doing what?
Observations involve:
1. Watching
2. Recording
behaviour
Observations involve watching and recording behaviour, for example what?
Observations involve watching and recording behaviour, for example children in a playground
Observations involve watching and recording behaviour, for example children in a playground.
Most observations are what?
Most observations are naturalistic
Observations involve watching and recording behaviour, for example children in a playground.
Most observations are naturalistic, which means that they what?
Most observations are naturalistic, which means that they occur in real-world settings
Observations involve watching and recording behaviour, for example children in a playground.
Most observations are naturalistic, which means that they occur in real-world settings, but they can what?
Most observations are naturalistic, which means that they occur in real-world settings, but they can occur under controlled conditions
Observations involve watching and recording behaviour, for example children in a playground.
Most observations are naturalistic, which means that they occur in real-world settings, but they can occur under controlled conditions, for example what?
Most observations are naturalistic, which means that they occur in real-world settings, but they can occur under controlled conditions, for example Milgram’s (1963) obedience study
How many main types of observation are there?
There are 2 main types of observation:
- Participant observation
- Non-participant observation
There are 2 main types of observation - Participant observation and non-participant observation.
Participant observation involves what?
Participant observation involves observers becoming actively involved in the situation being studied to gain a more ‘hands-on’ perspective
There are 2 main types of observation - Participant observation and non-participant observation.
Participant observation involves observers becoming actively involved in the situation being studied to gain a more ‘hands-on’ perspective, for example what?
Participant observation involves observers becoming actively involved in the situation being studied to gain a more ‘hands-on’ perspective, for example Zimbardo’s (1973) prison simulation study
There are 2 main types of observation - Participant observation and non-participant observation.
Non-participant observation involves what?
Non-participant observation involves observers not becoming actively involved in the behaviour being studied
There are 2 main types of observation - Participant observation and non-participant observation.
Non-participant observation involves observers not becoming actively involved in the behaviour being studied, for example what?
Non-participant observation involves observers not becoming actively involved in the behaviour being studied, for example Ainsworth’s (1971) Strange Situation study
There are 2 main types of observation - Participant observation and non-participant observation.
Observations can also be what?
Observations can also be:
- Covert
- Overt
There are 2 main types of observation - Participant observation and non-participant observation.
Observations can also be covert and overt.
Covert observations are where what?
Covert observations are where participants remain unaware of being observed
There are 2 main types of observation - Participant observation and non-participant observation.
Observations can also be covert and overt.
Covert observations are where participants remain unaware of being observed, for example what?
Covert observations are where participants remain unaware of being observed, for example Festinger’s (1957) study
There are 2 main types of observation - Participant observation and non-participant observation.
Observations can also be covert and overt.
Overt observations are where what?
Overt observations are where participants are aware that they are being observed
There are 2 main types of observation - Participant observation and non-participant observation.
Observations can also be covert and overt.
Overt observations are where participants are aware that they are being observed, for example what?
Overt observations are where participants are aware that they are being observed, for example Zimbardo’s (1973) prison simulation study
Advantages of observational techniques:
1. High what?
An advantage of observational techniques is high external (ecological) validity
Advantages of observational techniques:
1. High external (ecological) validity.
Since observations usually what, participants do what?
Since observations usually occur in natural settings, participants behave naturally
Advantages of observational techniques:
1. High external (ecological) validity.
Since observations usually occur in natural settings, participants behave naturally and so results can be what?
Since observations usually occur in natural settings, participants behave naturally and so results can be generalised to other settings
Advantages of observational techniques:
1. High external (ecological) validity.
Since observations usually occur in natural settings, participants behave naturally and so results can be generalised to other settings.
2. The method is what?
An advantage of observational techniques is that the method is practical
Advantages of observational techniques: 1. High external (ecological) validity. Since observations usually occur in natural settings, participants behave naturally and so results can be generalised to other settings. 2. The method is practical. This practical method can be used where?
This practical method can be used in situations where deliberate manipulation of variables would be:
1. Unethical
Or,
2. Impractical
Advantages of observational techniques:
1. High external (ecological) validity.
Since observations usually occur in natural settings, participants behave naturally and so results can be generalised to other settings.
2. The method is practical.
This practical method can be used in situations where deliberate manipulation of variables would be unethical or impractical, for example what?
This practical method can be used in situations where deliberate manipulation of variables would be:
1. Unethical
Or,
2. Impractical
,for example studying football hooliganism
Advantages of observational techniques:
1. High external (ecological) validity.
Since observations usually occur in natural settings, participants behave naturally and so results can be generalised to other settings.
2. The method is practical.
This practical method can be used in situations where deliberate manipulation of variables would be unethical or impractical.
It is useful where what?
This practical method is useful where:
- Co-operation from those being observed is unlikely
- The full social context for behaviour is needed
Advantages of observational techniques:
1. High external (ecological) validity.
Since observations usually occur in natural settings, participants behave naturally and so results can be generalised to other settings.
2. The method is practical.
This practical method can be used in situations where deliberate manipulation of variables would be unethical or impractical.
This practical method is useful where co-operation from those being observed is unlikely and where the full social context for behaviour is needed.
It is particularly useful when studying what?
This practical method is particularly useful when studying:
1. Children
Or,
2. Animals
Advantages of observational techniques:
1. High external (ecological) validity.
Since observations usually occur in natural settings, participants behave naturally and so results can be generalised to other settings.
2. The method is practical.
This practical method can be used in situations where deliberate manipulation of variables would be unethical or impractical.
This practical method is useful where co-operation from those being observed is unlikely and where the full social context for behaviour is needed.
It is particularly useful when studying children or animals.
3. Few what?
An advantage of observational techniques is few demand characteristics
Advantages of observational techniques:
1. High external (ecological) validity.
Since observations usually occur in natural settings, participants behave naturally and so results can be generalised to other settings.
2. The method is practical.
This practical method can be used in situations where deliberate manipulation of variables would be unethical or impractical.
This practical method is useful where co-operation from those being observed is unlikely and where the full social context for behaviour is needed.
It is particularly useful when studying children or animals.
3. Few demand characteristics.
With covert observations, participants are what?
With covert observations, participants are unaware of being observed
Advantages of observational techniques:
1. High external (ecological) validity.
Since observations usually occur in natural settings, participants behave naturally and so results can be generalised to other settings.
2. The method is practical.
This practical method can be used in situations where deliberate manipulation of variables would be unethical or impractical.
This practical method is useful where co-operation from those being observed is unlikely and where the full social context for behaviour is needed.
It is particularly useful when studying children or animals.
3. Few demand characteristics.
With covert observations, participants are unaware of being observed and so there are what?
With covert observations, participants are unaware of being observed and so there are no demand characteristics
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. C and e?
A weakness of observational techniques is:
- Cause
- Effect
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be what?
Causality cannot be inferred
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since what?
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are:
- Only observed
- Not manipulated
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little what?
Causality cannot be inferred, since:
- The variables are only observed, not manipulated
- There is little control of extraneous variables
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little control of extraneous variables.
2. O what?
A weakness of observational techniques is observer bias
Weaknesses of observational techniques: 1. Cause and effect. Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little control of extraneous variables. 2. Observer bias. Observers may see what?
Observers may see what they want to see
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little control of extraneous variables.
2. Observer bias.
Observers may see what they want to see, but this can be reduced by doing what?
Observers may see what they want to see, but this can be reduced by establishing inter-rater reliability
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little control of extraneous variables.
2. Observer bias.
Observers may see what they want to see, but this can be reduced by establishing inter-rater reliability.
This can undermine the objectivity of the study.
3. R what?
A weakness of observational techniques is replication
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little control of extraneous variables.
2. Observer bias.
Observers may see what they want to see, but this can be reduced by establishing inter-rater reliability.
This can undermine the objectivity of the study.
3. Replication.
The lack of control over variables means what?
The lack of control over variables means that conditions can never be repeated exactly to check the results
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little control of extraneous variables.
2. Observer bias.
Observers may see what they want to see, but this can be reduced by establishing inter-rater reliability.
This can undermine the objectivity of the study.
3. Replication.
The lack of control over variables means that conditions can never be repeated exactly to check the results.
4. E?
A weakness of observational techniques is ethics
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little control of extraneous variables.
2. Observer bias.
Observers may see what they want to see, but this can be reduced by establishing inter-rater reliability.
This can undermine the objectivity of the study.
3. Replication.
The lack of control over variables means that conditions can never be repeated exactly to check the results.
4. Ethics.
If participants are unaware of being observed, issues of what arise?
If participants are unaware of being observed, issues of:
1. Invasion of privacy
2. Informed consent
arise
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little control of extraneous variables.
2. Observer bias.
Observers may see what they want to see, but this can be reduced by establishing inter-rater reliability.
This can undermine the objectivity of the study.
3. Replication.
The lack of control over variables means that conditions can never be repeated exactly to check the results.
4. Ethics.
If participants are unaware of being observed, issues of invasion of privacy and informed consent arise, but if participants are informed of the study, then there is a possibility of what?
If participants are unaware of being observed, issues of:
1. Invasion of privacy
2. Informed consent
arise, but if participants are informed of the study, then there is a possibility of demand characteristics
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little control of extraneous variables.
2. Observer bias.
Observers may see what they want to see, but this can be reduced by establishing inter-rater reliability.
This can undermine the objectivity of the study.
3. Replication.
The lack of control over variables means that conditions can never be repeated exactly to check the results.
4. Ethics.
If participants are unaware of being observed, issues of invasion of privacy and informed consent arise, but if participants are informed of the study, then there is a possibility of demand characteristics.
5. P problems?
A weakness of observational techniques is practical problems
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little control of extraneous variables.
2. Observer bias.
Observers may see what they want to see, but this can be reduced by establishing inter-rater reliability.
This can undermine the objectivity of the study.
3. Replication.
The lack of control over variables means that conditions can never be repeated exactly to check the results.
4. Ethics.
If participants are unaware of being observed, issues of invasion of privacy and informed consent arise, but if participants are informed of the study, then there is a possibility of demand characteristics.
5. Practical problems.
It can be difficult to remain what?
It can be difficult to remain unobserved
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little control of extraneous variables.
2. Observer bias.
Observers may see what they want to see, but this can be reduced by establishing inter-rater reliability.
This can undermine the objectivity of the study.
3. Replication.
The lack of control over variables means that conditions can never be repeated exactly to check the results.
4. Ethics.
If participants are unaware of being observed, issues of invasion of privacy and informed consent arise, but if participants are informed of the study, then there is a possibility of demand characteristics.
5. Practical problems.
It can be difficult to remain unobserved and there can be problems doing what?
It can be difficult to remain unobserved and there can be problems recording behaviour
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little control of extraneous variables.
2. Observer bias.
Observers may see what they want to see, but this can be reduced by establishing inter-rater reliability.
This can undermine the objectivity of the study.
3. Replication.
The lack of control over variables means that conditions can never be repeated exactly to check the results.
4. Ethics.
If participants are unaware of being observed, issues of invasion of privacy and informed consent arise, but if participants are informed of the study, then there is a possibility of demand characteristics.
5. Practical problems.
It can be difficult to remain unobserved and there can be problems recording behaviour, for example what?
It can be difficult to remain unobserved and there can be problems recording behaviour, for example seeing all the behaviours exhibited
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little control of extraneous variables.
2. Observer bias.
Observers may see what they want to see, but this can be reduced by establishing inter-rater reliability.
This can undermine the objectivity of the study.
3. Replication.
The lack of control over variables means that conditions can never be repeated exactly to check the results.
4. Ethics.
If participants are unaware of being observed, issues of invasion of privacy and informed consent arise, but if participants are informed of the study, then there is a possibility of demand characteristics.
5. Practical problems.
It can be difficult to remain unobserved and there can be problems recording behaviour.
It can also be difficult to do what?
It can also be difficult to categorise observed behaviours accurately
Observational technique is a what way to study behaviour?
Observational technique is a non-experimental way to study behaviour
Advantages of participant observations:
There is a richer insight into what?
An advantage of participant observations is that there is a richer insight into the study
Advantages of participant observations:
There is a richer insight into the study, since the researcher gets more what?
An advantage of participant observations is that there is a richer insight into the study, since the researcher gets more:
- Details
- Observational data
Weaknesses of participant observations:
They may lack what?
A weakness of participant observations is that participant observations may lack objectivity
Weaknesses of participant observations:
They may lack objectivity, because what does the researcher do?
A weakness of participant observations is that they may lack objectivity, because the researcher associates with the participants
Advantages of non-participant observations:
They are what in nature?
An advantage of non-participant observations is that they are objective in nature
Advantages of non-participant observations:
They are objective in nature.
They are not affected by what?
Non-participant observations are not affected by subjective:
1. Thoughts
Or,
2. Emotions
Weaknesses of non-participant observations:
They may lack what, as information is only observed from a distance?
A weakness of non-participant observations is that they may lack rich data, as information is only observed from a distance
Advantages of covert observations:
They remove what?
An advantage of covert observations is that they remove participant reactivity
Advantages of covert observations:
They remove participant reactivity, thus increasing what?
An advantage of covert observations is that they remove participant reactivity, thus increasing the validity of the study
Advantages of overt observations:
They are what?
An advantage of overt observations is that they are ethically viable
Weaknesses of overt observations:
Participant variables may act as what?
A weakness of overt observations is that participant variables may act as extraneous variables
Weaknesses of overt observations:
Participant variables may act as extraneous variables, doing what?
A weakness of overt observations is that participant variables may act as extraneous variables, corrupting the purpose of the study
Participant observation involves observers becoming actively involved in the situation being studied to gain a more ‘hands-on’ perspective.
In participant observation, the investigator is what?
In participant observation, the investigator is a part of the group that is being observed
Non-participant observation involves researchers not becoming actively involved in the behaviour being studied.
In non-participant observation, the investigator observes how?
In non-participant observation, the investigator observes from a distance
Weaknesses of observational techniques:
1. Cause and effect.
Causality cannot be inferred, since the variables are only observed, not manipulated, and there is little control of extraneous variables.
2. Observer bias.
Observers may see what they want to see, but this can be reduced by establishing inter-rater reliability.
This can do what?
This can undermine the objectivity of the study
There are 2 main types of observation, participant observation and non-participant observation.
Observations can also be covert and overt.
Covert observations are where participants remain unaware of being observed, for example Festinger’s (1957) study, where he did what?
Covert observations are where participants remain unaware of being observed, for example Festinger’s (1957) study, where he infiltrated a cult who were prophesying the end of the world
Non-participant observation involves researchers not becoming actively involved in the behaviour being studied.
In non-participant observation, the investigator observes from a distance, without doing what?
In non-participant observation, the investigator observes from a distance, without being a part of the group that is being observed
The Hawthorne effect
The Hawthorne effect is the alteration of behaviour by the subjects of a study, because of their awareness of being observed
