3.1: Caregiver-infant interactions in humans Flashcards
1
Q
Precocial animals
A
Precocial animals are animals born at a fairly advanced stage of development
2
Q
Precocial animals are animals born at a fairly advanced stage of development.
Example
A
For example, foals (horses) are able to:
1. Walk
2. Run around
soon after birth
3
Q
Precocial animals are animals born at a fairly advanced stage of development.
For example, foals (horses) are able to walk and run around soon after birth.
However, what are human babies?
A
Human babies are altricial
4
Q
Precocial animals are animals born at a fairly advanced stage of development.
For example, foals (horses) are able to walk and run around soon after birth.
However, human babies are altricial.
What does this mean?
A
This means that human babies are born at a relatively early stage of development
5
Q
Precocial animals are animals born at a fairly advanced stage of development.
For example, foals (horses) are able to walk and run around soon after birth.
However, human babies are altricial.
This means that human babies are born at a relatively early stage of development and so what do they need to do?
A
This means that human babies are born at a relatively early stage of development and so they need to form attachment bonds with adults who will:
1. Protect
2. Nurture
them
6
Q
Precocial animals are animals born at a fairly advanced stage of development.
For example, foals (horses) are able to walk and run around soon after birth.
However, human babies are altricial.
This means that human babies are born at a relatively early stage of development and so they need to form attachment bonds with adults who will protect and nurture them.
What is this linked to?
A
This is linked to the evolutionary theory
7
Q
Precocial animals are animals born at a fairly advanced stage of development.
For example, foals (horses) are able to walk and run around soon after birth.
However, human babies are altricial.
This means that human babies are born at a relatively early stage of development and so they need to form attachment bonds with adults who will protect and nurture them.
This is linked to the evolutionary theory - what?
A
This is linked to the evolutionary theory - survival of the fittest
8
Q
Precocial animals are animals born at a fairly advanced stage of development.
For example, foals (horses) are able to walk and run around soon after birth.
However, human babies are altricial.
This means that human babies are born at a relatively early stage of development and so they need to form attachment bonds with adults who will protect and nurture them.
This is linked to the evolutionary theory - survival of the fittest.
If an attachment is not formed, what will happen?
A
If an attachment is not formed:
- The primary caregiver will not care or raise the human babies properly
- Then they would not survive
9
Q
Precocial animals are animals born at a fairly advanced stage of development.
For example, foals (horses) are able to walk and run around soon after birth.
However, human babies are altricial.
This means that human babies are born at a relatively early stage of development and so they need to form attachment bonds with adults who will protect and nurture them.
This is linked to the evolutionary theory - survival of the fittest.
If an attachment is not formed, the primary caregiver will not care or raise the human babies properly and then they would not survive.
This is why what?
A
This why human babies are dependent
10
Q
Precocial animals are animals born at a fairly advanced stage of development.
For example, foals (horses) are able to walk and run around soon after birth.
However, human babies are altricial.
This means that human babies are born at a relatively early stage of development and so they need to form attachment bonds with adults who will protect and nurture them.
This is linked to the evolutionary theory - survival of the fittest.
If an attachment is not formed, the primary caregiver will not care or raise the human babies properly and then they would not survive.
This is why human babies are dependent.
What is the short-term benefit?
A
The short-term benefit is survival
11
Q
Precocial animals are animals born at a fairly advanced stage of development.
For example, foals (horses) are able to walk and run around soon after birth.
However, human babies are altricial.
This means that human babies are born at a relatively early stage of development and so they need to form attachment bonds with adults who will protect and nurture them.
This is linked to the evolutionary theory - survival of the fittest.
If an attachment is not formed, the primary caregiver will not care or raise the human babies properly and then they would not survive.
This is why human babies are dependent.
The short-term benefit is survival.
What is the long-term benefit?
A
The long-term benefit is emotional relationships
12
Q
Precocial animals are animals born at a fairly advanced stage of development.
For example, foals (horses) are able to walk and run around soon after birth.
However, human babies are altricial.
This means that human babies are born at a relatively early stage of development and so they need to form attachment bonds with adults who will protect and nurture them.
This is linked to the evolutionary theory - survival of the fittest.
If an attachment is not formed, the primary caregiver will not care or raise the human babies properly and then they would not survive.
This is why human babies are dependent.
The short-term benefit is survival.
The long-term benefit is emotional relationships.
It is believed that this first relationships acts as what?
A
It is believed that this first relationships acts as a template for later relationships
13
Q
When their babies are born, what do mothers have?
A
When their babies are born, mothers have instant skin-to-skin contact
14
Q
When their babies are born, mothers have instant skin-to-skin contact.
What is there also?
A
There is also skin-to-skin contact for fathers
15
Q
What are all human babies born with?
A
All human babies are born with black and white vision
16
Q
All human babies are born with black and white vision.
They can’t see in colour until when?
A
They can’t see in colour until they are a few months old
17
Q
Attachment
A
An attachment is an enduring, two-way, emotional tie to a specific other person (especially between a parent and child), which develops in set stages within a fairly set timescale
18
Q
Attachment is an enduring, two-way, emotional tie to a specific other person (especially between a parent and child), which develops in set stages within a fairly set timescale.
The individual sees the other as essential for what?
A
The individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security
19
Q
When does an attachment develop?
A
An attachment takes a few months to develop
20
Q
An attachment takes a few months to develop.
What is it not?
A
It is not instant
21
Q
An attachment takes a few months to develop.
It is not instant, why?
A
It is not instant, because an attachment bond is not present at birth (it isn’t innate)
22
Q
An attachment can be seen to have developed when an infant shows what?
A
An attachment can be seen to have developed when an infant shows:
- Stranger anxiety
- Separation protest
23
Q
An attachment can be seen to have developed when an infant shows stranger anxiety and separation protest.
Stranger anxiety
A
Stranger anxiety is distress in the presence of unknown individuals
24
Q
An attachment can be seen to have developed when an infant shows stranger anxiety and separation protest.
Separation protest
A
Separation protest is distress at the absence of a specific person
25
Attachment bonds are characterised by an infant's desire to keep close proximity to a particular individual and by the expression of distress if the infant is separated from that person.
This particular individual gives an infant a sense of security and is usually the child's mother, though attachments can be provided by anyone who provides such what?
This particular individual gives an infant a sense of security and is usually the child's mother, though attachments can be provided by anyone who provides such:
1. Comfort
2. Security
26
Attachment bonds are characterised by an infant's desire to keep close proximity to a particular individual and by the expression of distress if the infant is separated from that person.
This particular individual gives an infant a sense of security and is usually the child's mother, though attachments can be provided by anyone who provides such comfort and security.
Attachment behaviours:
Proximity
Proximity is that people try to stay physically close to those they are attached to
27
Attachment bonds are characterised by an infant's desire to keep close proximity to a particular individual and by the expression of distress if the infant is separated from that person.
This particular individual gives an infant a sense of security and is usually the child's mother, though attachments can be provided by anyone who provides such comfort and security.
Attachment behaviours:
Secure base behaviour
Secure base behaviour is that people:
1. Explore the environment
,but
2. Return to the attachment figure for comfort
28
What do interactions between a carer and an infant serve to do?
Interactions between a carer and an infant serve to:
1. Develop
2. Maintain attachment bond between them
29
Interactions between a carer and an infant serve to develop and maintain an attachment bond between them.
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, what is communication between carer and infant?
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is:
1. Rich
2. Complex
30
Interactions between a carer and an infant serve to develop and maintain an attachment bond between them.
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs how?
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs in several ways:
1. Bodily contact
2. Mimicking
3. Caregiverese
4. Interactional synchrony
5. Reciprocity
31
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs in several ways - Bodily contact, mimicking, caregiverese, interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
1. Bodily contact - What between carer and infant help to form the attachment bond?
Physical interactions between:
1. Carer
2. Infant
help to form the attachment bond
32
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs in several ways - Bodily contact, mimicking, caregiverese, interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
1. Bodily contact - Physical interactions between carer and infant help to form the attachment bond, especially when?
Physical interactions between:
1. Carer
2. Infant
help to form the attachment bond, especially in the period immediately after birth
33
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs in several ways - Bodily contact, mimicking, caregiverese, interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
1. Bodily contact - Physical interactions between carer and infant help to form the attachment bond, especially in the period immediately after birth (links to skin-to-skin contact).
2. Mimicking - What do infants seem to have?
Infants seem to have an innate ability to imitate carers' facial expressions
34
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs in several ways - Bodily contact, mimicking, caregiverese, interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
1. Bodily contact - Physical interactions between carer and infant help to form the attachment bond, especially in the period immediately after birth (links to skin-to-skin contact).
2. Mimicking - Infants seem to have an innate ability to imitate carers' facial expressions, which suggests what?
Infants seem to have an innate ability to imitate carers' facial expressions, which suggests that it is a biological device to aid the formation of attachments
35
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs in several ways - Bodily contact, mimicking, caregiverese, interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
1. Bodily contact - Physical interactions between carer and infant help to form the attachment bond, especially in the period immediately after birth (links to skin-to-skin contact).
2. Mimicking - Infants seem to have an innate ability to imitate carers' facial expressions, which suggests that it is a biological device to aid the formation of attachments (links to the evolutionary theory - infants have evolved this for survival - to form attachments with adults who will protect and nurture them).
3. Caregiverese - What do adults who interact with infants use?
Adults who interact with infants use a modified form of vocal language
36
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs in several ways - Bodily contact, mimicking, caregiverese, interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
1. Bodily contact - Physical interactions between carer and infant help to form the attachment bond, especially in the period immediately after birth (links to skin-to-skin contact).
2. Mimicking - Infants seem to have an innate ability to imitate carers' facial expressions, which suggests that it is a biological device to aid the formation of attachments (links to the evolutionary theory - infants have evolved this for survival - to form attachments with adults who will protect and nurture them).
3. Caregiverese - Adults who interact with infants use a modified form of vocal language that is what?
Adults who interact with infants use a modified form of vocal language that is:
1. High-pitched
2. Song-like in nature
3. Slow
4. Repetitive
37
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs in several ways - Bodily contact, mimicking, caregiverese, interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
1. Bodily contact - Physical interactions between carer and infant help to form the attachment bond, especially in the period immediately after birth (links to skin-to-skin contact).
2. Mimicking - Infants seem to have an innate ability to imitate carers' facial expressions, which suggests that it is a biological device to aid the formation of attachments (links to the evolutionary theory - infants have evolved this for survival - to form attachments with adults who will protect and nurture them).
3. Caregiverese - Adults who interact with infants use a modified form of vocal language that is high-pitched, song-like in nature, slow and repetitive.
What does this do?
This:
1. Aids communication between carer and infant
2. Serves to strengthen the attachment bond
38
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs in several ways - Bodily contact, mimicking, caregiverese, interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
1. Bodily contact - Physical interactions between carer and infant help to form the attachment bond, especially in the period immediately after birth (links to skin-to-skin contact).
2. Mimicking - Infants seem to have an innate ability to imitate carers' facial expressions, which suggests that it is a biological device to aid the formation of attachments (links to the evolutionary theory - infants have evolved this for survival - to form attachments with adults who will protect and nurture them).
3. Caregiverese - Adults who interact with infants use a modified form of vocal language that is high-pitched, song-like in nature, slow and repetitive.
This aids communication between carer and infant and serves to strengthen the attachment bond.
4. Interactional synchrony - What do infants do to create a kind of turn-taking?
Infants move their bodies in tune with the rhythm of carers' spoken language to create a kind of turn-taking
39
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs in several ways - Bodily contact, mimicking, caregiverese, interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
1. Bodily contact - Physical interactions between carer and infant help to form the attachment bond, especially in the period immediately after birth (links to skin-to-skin contact).
2. Mimicking - Infants seem to have an innate ability to imitate carers' facial expressions, which suggests that it is a biological device to aid the formation of attachments (links to the evolutionary theory - infants have evolved this for survival - to form attachments with adults who will protect and nurture them).
3. Caregiverese - Adults who interact with infants use a modified form of vocal language that is high-pitched, song-like in nature, slow and repetitive.
This aids communication between carer and infant and serves to strengthen the attachment bond.
4. Interactional synchrony - Infants move their bodies in tune with the rhythm of carers' spoken language to create a kind of turn-taking, as seen with what?
Infants move their bodies in tune with the rhythm of carers' spoken language to create a kind of turn-taking, as seen with two-way vocal conversations
40
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs in several ways - Bodily contact, mimicking, caregiverese, interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
1. Bodily contact - Physical interactions between carer and infant help to form the attachment bond, especially in the period immediately after birth (links to skin-to-skin contact).
2. Mimicking - Infants seem to have an innate ability to imitate carers' facial expressions, which suggests that it is a biological device to aid the formation of attachments (links to the evolutionary theory - infants have evolved this for survival - to form attachments with adults who will protect and nurture them).
3. Caregiverese - Adults who interact with infants use a modified form of vocal language that is high-pitched, song-like in nature, slow and repetitive.
This aids communication between carer and infant and serves to strengthen the attachment bond.
4. Interactional synchrony - Infants move their bodies in tune with the rhythm of carers' spoken language to create a kind of turn-taking, as seen with two-way vocal conversations.
What does this again serve to do?
This again serves to reinforce the attachment bond
41
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs in several ways - Bodily contact, mimicking, caregiverese, interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
1. Bodily contact - Physical interactions between carer and infant help to form the attachment bond, especially in the period immediately after birth (links to skin-to-skin contact).
2. Mimicking - Infants seem to have an innate ability to imitate carers' facial expressions, which suggests that it is a biological device to aid the formation of attachments (links to the evolutionary theory - infants have evolved this for survival - to form attachments with adults who will protect and nurture them).
3. Caregiverese - Adults who interact with infants use a modified form of vocal language that is high-pitched, song-like in nature, slow and repetitive.
This aids communication between carer and infant and serves to strengthen the attachment bond.
4. Interactional synchrony - Infants move their bodies in tune with the rhythm of carers' spoken language to create a kind of turn-taking, as seen with two-way vocal conversations.
This again serves to reinforce the attachment bond.
5. Reciprocity - What result in mutual behaviour?
Interactions between:
1. Carers
2. Infants
result in mutual behaviour
42
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs in several ways - Bodily contact, mimicking, caregiverese, interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
1. Bodily contact - Physical interactions between carer and infant help to form the attachment bond, especially in the period immediately after birth (links to skin-to-skin contact).
2. Mimicking - Infants seem to have an innate ability to imitate carers' facial expressions, which suggests that it is a biological device to aid the formation of attachments (links to the evolutionary theory - infants have evolved this for survival - to form attachments with adults who will protect and nurture them).
3. Caregiverese - Adults who interact with infants use a modified form of vocal language that is high-pitched, song-like in nature, slow and repetitive.
This aids communication between carer and infant and serves to strengthen the attachment bond.
4. Interactional synchrony - Infants move their bodies in tune with the rhythm of carers' spoken language to create a kind of turn-taking, as seen with two-way vocal conversations.
This again serves to reinforce the attachment bond.
5. Reciprocity - Interactions between carers and infants result in mutual behaviour, with both parties being able to do what?
Interactions between:
1. Carers
2. Infants
result in mutual behaviour, with both parties being able to produce responses from each other
43
Even though an infant can't talk at this stage of its development, communication between carer and infant is rich and complex and occurs in several ways - Bodily contact, mimicking, caregiverese, interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
1. Bodily contact - Physical interactions between carer and infant help to form the attachment bond, especially in the period immediately after birth (links to skin-to-skin contact).
2. Mimicking - Infants seem to have an innate ability to imitate carers' facial expressions, which suggests that it is a biological device to aid the formation of attachments (links to the evolutionary theory - infants have evolved this for survival - to form attachments with adults who will protect and nurture them).
3. Caregiverese - Adults who interact with infants use a modified form of vocal language that is high-pitched, song-like in nature, slow and repetitive.
This aids communication between carer and infant and serves to strengthen the attachment bond.
4. Interactional synchrony - Infants move their bodies in tune with the rhythm of carers' spoken language to create a kind of turn-taking, as seen with two-way vocal conversations.
This again serves to reinforce the attachment bond.
5. Reciprocity - Interactions between carers and infants result in mutual behaviour, with both parties being able to produce responses from each other, which also helps to do what?
Interactions between:
1. Carers
2. Infants
result in mutual behaviour, with both parties being able to produce responses from each other, which also helps to fortify the attachment bond
44
From an early age, babies have meaningful social interactions with carers.
These are important in the development of attachment.
What are these?
These are:
1. Interactional synchrony
2. Reciprocity
45
Interactional synchrony
Interactional synchrony is the co-ordinated rhythmic exchanges between:
1. Carer
2. Infant
46
Reciprocity
Reciprocity is the interaction of similar behaviour patterns between:
1. Carer
2. Infant
47
Interactional synchrony:
Interactional synchrony is the co-ordinated rhythmic exchanges between carer and infant.
The mother and infant reflect both what?
The mother and infant reflect both the:
1. Actions
2. Emotions
of the other
48
Interactional synchrony:
Interactional synchrony is the co-ordinated rhythmic exchanges between carer and infant.
The mother and infant reflect both the actions and the emotions of the other and so this is a what way?
The mother and infant reflect both the:
1. Actions
2. Emotions
of the other and so this is a co-ordinated (synchronised) way
49
Who (what year) looked at interactional synchrony in detail?
Meltzoff and Moore (1977) looked at interactional synchrony in detail
50
Meltzoff and Moore (1977) looked at interactional synchrony in detail.
Meltzoff and Moore conducted the first what study of interactional synchrony?
Meltzoff and Moore conducted the first systematic study of interactional synchrony
51
Meltzoff and Moore (1977) looked at interactional synchrony in detail.
Meltzoff and Moore conducted the first systematic study of interactional synchrony and what did they find?
Meltzoff and Moore conducted the first systematic study of interactional synchrony and found that infants as young as 2 to 3 weeks old imitated specific:
1. Facial
2. Hand
gestures
52
Meltzoff and Moore (1977) looked at interactional synchrony in detail.
Meltzoff and Moore conducted the first systematic study of interactional synchrony and found that infants as young as 2 to 3 weeks old imitated specific facial and hand gestures.
How was the study conducted?
The study was conducted using an adult model who displayed one of 3:
1. Facial expressions
Or,
2. Hand movements where the fingers moved in a sequence
53
Meltzoff and Moore (1977) looked at interactional synchrony in detail.
Meltzoff and Moore conducted the first systematic study of interactional synchrony and found that infants as young as 2 to 3 weeks old imitated specific facial and hand gestures.
The study was conducted using an adult model who displayed one of 3 facial expressions or hand movements where the fingers moved in a sequence.
A dummy
A dummy was placed in the infant's mouth during the initial display to prevent any response
54
Meltzoff and Moore (1977) looked at interactional synchrony in detail.
Meltzoff and Moore conducted the first systematic study of interactional synchrony and found that infants as young as 2 to 3 weeks old imitated specific facial and hand gestures.
The study was conducted using an adult model who displayed one of 3 facial expressions or hand movements where the fingers moved in a sequence.
A dummy was placed in the infant's mouth during the initial display to prevent any response.
What happened, following the display?
Following the display:
1. The dummy was removed
2. The child's expression was filmed
55
Meltzoff and Moore (1977) looked at interactional synchrony in detail.
Meltzoff and Moore conducted the first systematic study of interactional synchrony and found that infants as young as 2 to 3 weeks old imitated specific facial and hand gestures.
The study was conducted using an adult model who displayed one of 3 facial expressions or hand movements where the fingers moved in a sequence.
A dummy was placed in the infant's mouth during the initial display to prevent any response.
Following the display, the dummy was removed and the child's expression was filmed.
What did they find?
They found that there was an association between:
1. The infant behaviour
2. That of the adult model
56
Meltzoff and Moore (1977) looked at interactional synchrony in detail.
Meltzoff and Moore conducted the first systematic study of interactional synchrony and found that infants as young as 2 to 3 weeks old imitated specific facial and hand gestures.
The study was conducted using an adult model who displayed one of 3 facial expressions or hand movements where the fingers moved in a sequence.
A dummy was placed in the infant's mouth during the initial display to prevent any response.
Following the display, the dummy was removed and the child's expression was filmed.
They found that there was an association between the infant behaviour and that of the adult model.
There is an innate ability to do what?
There is an innate ability to mimic your carer o form a bond
57
An example of reciprocity
An example of reciprocity is how mother-infant interaction is reciprocal (two-way), because the infant and the mother:
1. Respond to each others' signals
2. Each elicit a response from the other
58
An example of reciprocity is how mother-infant interaction is reciprocal (two-way), because the infant and the mother respond to each others' signals and each elicit a response from the other.
What does help to do?
This helps to facilitate an attachment
59
An example of reciprocity is how mother-infant interaction is reciprocal (two-way), because the infant and the mother respond to each others' signals and each elicit a response from the other.
This helps to facilitate an attachment.
Another example of reciprocity
Another example of reciprocity is how babies have 'alert phases' that signal that they're ready for interaction
60
Another example of reciprocity is how babies have 'alert phases' that signal that they're ready for interaction.
Who (what year) looked at this in particular?
Feldman and Eidelman (2007) looked at this in particular
61
Another example of reciprocity is how babies have 'alert phases' that signal that they're ready for interaction.
Feldman and Eidelman (2007) looked at this in particular.
What do mothers typically do?
Mothers typically:
1. Pick up
2. Respond to
alertness
62
Another example of reciprocity is how babies have 'alert phases' that signal that they're ready for interaction.
Feldman and Eidelman (2007) looked at this in particular.
Mothers typically pick up and respond to alertness (how much of the time)?
Mothers typically:
1. Pick up
2. Respond to
alertness (2/3 of the time)
63
What did Feldman (2007) say?
Feldman (2007) said that from 3+ months, interaction:
1. Tends to be more frequent
2. Involves close attention to each others' verbal signals and facial expressions
64
Who (what year) described interaction as a 'dance'?
Brazelton et al. (1975) described interaction as a 'dance'
65
Brazelton et al. (1975) described interaction as a 'dance,' why?
Brazelton et al. (1975) described interaction as a 'dance,' because each partner responds to the other's moves
66
Who (what year) compared mums?
Klaus and Kennell (1976) compared mums
67
Klaus and Kennell (1976) compared mums who had what with mums who only had what?
Klaus and Kennell (1976) compared:
1. Mums who had extended physical contact with their babies lasting several hours a day
with
2. Mums who only had physical contact with their babies during feeding in the 3 days after birth
68
Klaus and Kennell (1976) compared mums who had extended physical contact with their babies lasting several hours a day with mums who only had physical contact with their babies during feeding in the 3 days after birth.
One month later, what?
One month later:
1. The mums with the greater physical contact were found to cuddle their babies more and made greater eye contact with them
than
2. The mums with lesser contact
69
Klaus and Kennell (1976) compared mums who had extended physical contact with their babies lasting several hours a day with mums who only had physical contact with their babies during feeding in the 3 days after birth.
One month later, the mums with the greater physical contact were found to cuddle their babies more and made greater eye contact with them than the mums with lesser contact.
When were these effects still noticeable?
These effects were still noticeable a year later
70
Klaus and Kennell (1976) compared mums who had extended physical contact with their babies lasting several hours a day with mums who only had physical contact with their babies during feeding in the 3 days after birth.
One month later, the mums with the greater physical contact were found to cuddle their babies more and made greater eye contact with them than the mums with lesser contact.
These effects were still noticeable a year later.
What does this suggest?
This suggests that greater physical contact leads to:
1. Stronger
2. Closer
bond formation
71
Who (what year) found that infants aged 2 to 3 weeks tended to mimic adults' specific facial expressions and hand movements?
Meltzoff and Moore (1977) found that infants aged 2 to 3 weeks tended to mimic adult's specific:
1. Facial expressions
2. Hand movements
72
Who (what year) found that the tendency to use a rising tone to show an infant that it was their turn in the interaction was what?
Papousek et al. (1991) found that the tendency to use a rising tone to show an infant that it was their turn in the interaction was cross-cultural
73
Papousek et al. (1991) found that the tendency to use a rising tone to show an infant that it was their turn in the interaction was cross-cultural, how?
```
Papousek et al. (1991) found that the tendency to use a rising tone to show an infant that it was their turn in the interaction was cross-cultural, as:
1. American
2. Chinese
3. German
mothers all exhibited the behaviour
```
74
Papousek et al. (1991) found that the tendency to use a rising tone to show an infant that it was their turn in the interaction was cross-cultural, as American, Chinese and German mothers all exhibited the behaviour.
What does this suggest?
This suggests that 'caregiverese' is an innate, biological device to facilitate the formation of attachments
75
Who (what year) analysed frame-by-frame video recordings of infants' movements?
Condon and Sander (1974) analysed frame-by-frame video recordings of infants' movements
76
Condon and Sander (1974) analysed frame-by-frame video recordings of infants' movements to find what?
Condon and Sander (1974) analysed frame-by-frame video recordings of infants' movements to find that they co-ordinated their actions in sequence with adults' speech to form a kind of turn-taking conversation
77
Condon and Sander (1974) analysed frame-by-frame video recordings of infants' movements to find that they co-ordinated their actions in sequence with adults' speech to form a kind of turn-taking conversation, supporting what?
Condon and Sander (1974) analysed frame-by-frame video recordings of infants' movements to find that they co-ordinated their actions in sequence with adults' speech to form a kind of turn-taking conversation, supporting the idea of interactional synchrony
78
Condon and Sander (1974) analysed frame-by-frame video recordings of infants' movements to find that they co-ordinated their actions in sequence with adults' speech to form a kind of turn-taking conversation, supporting the idea of interactional synchrony.
Who (what year) further strengthened the notion of interactional synchrony reinforcing attachment bonds?
Isabella et al. (1989) further strengthened the notion of interactional synchrony reinforcing attachment bonds
79
Condon and Sander (1974) analysed frame-by-frame video recordings of infants' movements to find that they co-ordinated their actions in sequence with adults' speech to form a kind of turn-taking conversation, supporting the idea of interactional synchrony.
Isabella et al. (1989) further strengthened the notion of interactional synchrony reinforcing attachment bonds, by finding what?
Isabella et al. (1989) further strengthened the notion of interactional synchrony reinforcing attachment bonds, by finding that infants with secure attachments demonstrated more evidence of such behaviour during their first year of life
80
Evaluation:
| What was a practical application of Klaus and Kennell's findings?
A practical application of Klaus and Kennell's findings was that hospitals placed:
1. Mothers
2. Babies
in the same room in the days following birth
81
Evaluation:
A practical application of Klaus and Kennell's findings was that hospitals placed mothers and babies in the same room in the days following birth, rather than the previous practice of doing what?
A practical application of Klaus and Kennell's findings was that hospitals:
1. Placed mothers and babies in the same room in the days following birth
,rather than
2. The previous practice of rooming them apart
82
Evaluation:
A practical application of Klaus and Kennell's findings was that hospitals placed mothers and babies in the same room in the days following birth, rather than the previous practice of rooming them apart, to do what?
A practical application of Klaus and Kennell's findings was that hospitals:
1. Placed mothers and babies in the same room in the days following birth
,rather than
2. The previous practice of rooming them apart
,to encourage the formation of attachments
83
Evaluation:
Who (what year) claimed that Klaus and Kennell's findings were due not to increased physical contact, but instead due to what?
Durkin (1995) claimed that Klaus and Kennell's findings were:
1. Due not to increased physical contact
,but instead
2. Due to the greater attention given to the mothers who were unmarried and poor
84
Evaluation:
Durkin (1995) claimed that Klaus and Kennell's findings were due not to increased physical contact, but instead due to the greater attention given to the mothers who were unmarried and poor.
However, who (what year) found the same results with who?
De Chateau and Wiberg (1984) found the same results with middle-class Swedish mothers
85
An example of reciprocity is how mother-infant interaction is reciprocal (two-way), because the infant and the mother respond to each others' signals and each elicit a response from the other.
This helps to facilitate an attachment.
Another example of reciprocity is how babies have 'alert phases' that signal that they're ready for interaction.
Another example of reciprocity is the caregiver reacting and responding to the signals given out by the baby, providing comfort, warmth and empathy.
Doing what when he or she smiles?
```
Smiling back at the baby when:
1. He
Or,
2. She
smiles
```
86
An example of reciprocity is how mother-infant interaction is reciprocal (two-way), because the infant and the mother respond to each others' signals and each elicit a response from the other.
This helps to facilitate an attachment.
Another example of reciprocity is how babies have 'alert phases' that signal that they're ready for interaction.
Another example of reciprocity is the caregiver reacting and responding to the signals given out by the baby, providing comfort, warmth and empathy.
Smiling back at the baby when he or she smiles.
Doing what when he or she cries?
1. Picking them up
2. Giving them a cuddle
when he or she cries
87
An example of reciprocity is how mother-infant interaction is reciprocal (two-way), because the infant and the mother respond to each others' signals and each elicit a response from the other.
This helps to facilitate an attachment.
Another example of reciprocity is how babies have 'alert phases' that signal that they're ready for interaction.
Another example of reciprocity is the caregiver reacting and responding to the signals given out by the baby, providing comfort, warmth and empathy.
Smiling back at the baby when he or she smiles.
Picking them up and giving them a cuddle when he or she cries.
What will negative reciprocal processes do?
Negative reciprocal processes:
1. Still will contribute to an attachment
,but
2. One which will not be advantageous to the child's development
88
Who (what year) developed the 'still face' experiment?
Tronick (1978) developed the 'still face' experiment
89
Tronick (1978) developed the 'still face' experiment, a procedure where what?
Tronick (1978) developed the 'still face' experiment, a procedure where a mother:
1. Faces her baby
2. Is asked to hold a 'still face'
90
Tronick (1978) developed the 'still face' experiment, a procedure where a mother faces her baby and is asked to hold a 'still face,' in which she does not do what?
Tronick (1978) developed the 'still face' experiment, a procedure where a mother:
1. Faces her baby
2. Is asked to hold a 'still face'
,in which she does not react to the baby's behaviours
91
Tronick (1978) developed the 'still face' experiment, a procedure where a mother faces her baby and is asked to hold a 'still face,' in which she does not react to the baby's behaviours.
In general, what will happen?
In general, the baby will become agitated by failed attempts to evoke a reaction in the mother
92
Tronick (1978) developed the 'still face' experiment, a procedure where a mother faces her baby and is asked to hold a 'still face,' in which she does not react to the baby's behaviours.
In general, the baby will become agitated by failed attempts to evoke a reaction in the mother and what does this therefore demonstrate?
In general, the baby will become agitated by failed attempts to evoke a reaction in the mother and this therefore demonstrates the importance of reciprocity for the child's wellbeing
93
Evaluation:
Durkin (1995) claimed that Klaus and Kennell's findings were due not to increased physical contact, but instead due to the greater attention given to the mothers who were unmarried and poor.
De Chateau and Wiberg (1984) found the same results with middle-class Swedish mothers, which does what?
De Chateau and Wiberg (1984) found the same results with middle-class Swedish mothers, which gives support to Klaus and Kennell
94
Evaluation:
| 'Caregiverese' has been to be used by adults to who?
'Caregiverese' has been to be used by adults to:
1. All infants
,not just
2. Those they have an attachment with
95
Evaluation:
'Caregiverese' has been to be used by adults to all infants, not just those they have an attachment with, which suggests what?
'Caregiverese' has been to be used by adults to all infants, not just those they have an attachment with, which suggests that although its usage aids communication between:
1. Adults
2. Infants
,it cannot be claimed to specifically help form attachments
96
Evaluation:
The fact that interactional synchrony is not found where weakens support for the idea that it is necessary for attachment formation?
The fact that interactional synchrony is not found in all cultures weakens support for the idea that it is necessary for attachment formation
97
Evaluation:
The fact that interactional synchrony is not found in all cultures weakens support for the idea that it is necessary for attachment formation.
Who (what year) reported that Kenyan mothers have little physical contact or interactions with their infants?
```
Le Vine et al. (1994) reported that Kenyan mothers have little:
1. Physical contact
Or,
2. Interactions
with their infants
```
98
Evaluation:
The fact that interactional synchrony is not found in all cultures weakens support for the idea that it is necessary for attachment formation.
Le Vine et al. (1994) reported that Kenyan mothers have little physical contact or interactions with their infants, but what do such infants have?
Le Vine et al. (1994) reported that Kenyan mothers have little:
1. Physical contact
Or,
2. Interactions
with their infants, but such infants do have a high proportion of secure attachments
99
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the what of interactional synchrony and reciprocity?
A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the:
1. Purpose
Or,
2. Reason
of interactional synchrony and reciprocity
100
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to do what?
So we are able to:
1. Describe these terms
2. Reliability observe them
101
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, why?
So we are able to:
1. Describe these terms
2. Reliability observe them
,but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose
102
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
Example
For example, Feldman points out that:
1. Interactional synchrony
2. Reciprocity
simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time
103
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain what?
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions
104
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that what?
There is some evidence that:
1. Interactional synchrony
2. Reciprocity
are helpful in the development of attachment
105
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these what?
A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions
106
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
Example
```
For example, you might observe:
1. Hand movements
Or,
2. Changes in expression
,but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not
```
107
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, why?
```
For example, you might observe:
1. Hand movements
Or,
2. Changes in expression
,but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving
```
108
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, what?
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning
109
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and what does this mean?
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between:
1. General activity
2. Specific imitated behaviours
110
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, what of the data is poor?
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor
111
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, why?
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is:
1. Actually interactional synchrony
Or,
2. Just natural movement
112
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is actually interactional synchrony or just natural movement.
This was a limitation of whose study?
This was a limitation of Meltzoff and Moore's study
113
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is actually interactional synchrony or just natural movement.
This was a limitation of Meltzoff and Moore's study.
However, Meltzoff and Moore overcame this problem by doing what?
Meltzoff and Moore overcame this problem by:
1. Filming infant responses
2. Then asking an observer to judge the infant's behaviour from the video
114
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is actually interactional synchrony or just natural movement.
This was a limitation of Meltzoff and Moore's study.
However, Meltzoff and Moore overcame this problem by filming infant responses and then asking an observer to judge the infant's behaviour from the video.
Why does this increase the validity of their study?
This increases the validity of their study, because the judge does not know what behaviour was being imitated (inter-rater reliability)
115
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is actually interactional synchrony or just natural movement.
This was a limitation of Meltzoff and Moore's study.
However, Meltzoff and Moore overcame this problem by filming infant responses and then asking an observer to judge the infant's behaviour from the video.
This increases the validity of their study, because the judge does not know what behaviour was being imitated (inter-rater reliability).
What does this suggest?
This suggests that although it can be difficult to test infants behaviour, the use of observers in a film can:
1. Increase the internal validity of the study
2. Therefore overcome this issue
116
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is actually interactional synchrony or just natural movement.
This was a limitation of Meltzoff and Moore's study.
However, Meltzoff and Moore overcame this problem by filming infant responses and then asking an observer to judge the infant's behaviour from the video.
This increases the validity of their study, because the judge does not know what behaviour was being imitated (inter-rater reliability).
This suggests that although it can be difficult to test infants behaviour, the use of observers in a film can increase the internal validity of the study and therefore overcome this issue.
3. A weakness of research into what is that is could be considered what?
A weakness of research mother-infant interaction is that it could be considered unethical
117
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is actually interactional synchrony or just natural movement.
This was a limitation of Meltzoff and Moore's study.
However, Meltzoff and Moore overcame this problem by filming infant responses and then asking an observer to judge the infant's behaviour from the video.
This increases the validity of their study, because the judge does not know what behaviour was being imitated (inter-rater reliability).
This suggests that although it can be difficult to test infants behaviour, the use of observers in a film can increase the internal validity of the study and therefore overcome this issue.
3. A weakness of research mother-infant interaction is that it could be considered unethical, why?
A weakness of research mother-infant interaction is that it could be considered unethical, because it is socially sensitive
118
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is actually interactional synchrony or just natural movement.
This was a limitation of Meltzoff and Moore's study.
However, Meltzoff and Moore overcame this problem by filming infant responses and then asking an observer to judge the infant's behaviour from the video.
This increases the validity of their study, because the judge does not know what behaviour was being imitated (inter-rater reliability).
This suggests that although it can be difficult to test infants behaviour, the use of observers in a film can increase the internal validity of the study and therefore overcome this issue.
3. A weakness of research mother-infant interaction is that it could be considered unethical, because it is socially sensitive.
Who (what year) found that high levels of interactional synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant interactions?
Isabella et al. (1989) found that high levels of interactional synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant interactions
119
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is actually interactional synchrony or just natural movement.
This was a limitation of Meltzoff and Moore's study.
However, Meltzoff and Moore overcame this problem by filming infant responses and then asking an observer to judge the infant's behaviour from the video.
This increases the validity of their study, because the judge does not know what behaviour was being imitated (inter-rater reliability).
This suggests that although it can be difficult to test infants behaviour, the use of observers in a film can increase the internal validity of the study and therefore overcome this issue.
3. A weakness of research mother-infant interaction is that it could be considered unethical, because it is socially sensitive.
Isabella et al. (1989) found that high levels of interactional synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant interactions.
What does this suggest?
This suggests that mothers should not return to work so soon
120
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is actually interactional synchrony or just natural movement.
This was a limitation of Meltzoff and Moore's study.
However, Meltzoff and Moore overcame this problem by filming infant responses and then asking an observer to judge the infant's behaviour from the video.
This increases the validity of their study, because the judge does not know what behaviour was being imitated (inter-rater reliability).
This suggests that although it can be difficult to test infants behaviour, the use of observers in a film can increase the internal validity of the study and therefore overcome this issue.
3. A weakness of research mother-infant interaction is that it could be considered unethical, because it is socially sensitive.
Isabella et al. (1989) found that high levels of interactional synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant interactions.
This suggests that mothers should not return to work so soon, why?
This suggests that mothers should not return to work so soon, because:
1. They may be considered a 'bad mother'
Or,
2. Alternatively may be made to feel guilty for returning to work
121
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is actually interactional synchrony or just natural movement.
This was a limitation of Meltzoff and Moore's study.
However, Meltzoff and Moore overcame this problem by filming infant responses and then asking an observer to judge the infant's behaviour from the video.
This increases the validity of their study, because the judge does not know what behaviour was being imitated (inter-rater reliability).
This suggests that although it can be difficult to test infants behaviour, the use of observers in a film can increase the internal validity of the study and therefore overcome this issue.
3. A weakness of research mother-infant interaction is that it could be considered unethical, because it is socially sensitive.
Isabella et al. (1989) found that high levels of interactional synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant interactions.
This suggests that mothers should not return to work so soon, because they may be considered a 'bad mother' or alternatively may be made to feel guilty for returning to work.
4. A weakness with the explanations of caregiver-infant interactions is that is not found where?
A weakness with the explanations of caregiver-infant interactions is that is not found in all cultures
122
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is actually interactional synchrony or just natural movement.
This was a limitation of Meltzoff and Moore's study.
However, Meltzoff and Moore overcame this problem by filming infant responses and then asking an observer to judge the infant's behaviour from the video.
This increases the validity of their study, because the judge does not know what behaviour was being imitated (inter-rater reliability).
This suggests that although it can be difficult to test infants behaviour, the use of observers in a film can increase the internal validity of the study and therefore overcome this issue.
3. A weakness of research mother-infant interaction is that it could be considered unethical, because it is socially sensitive.
Isabella et al. (1989) found that high levels of interactional synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant interactions.
This suggests that mothers should not return to work so soon, because they may be considered a 'bad mother' or alternatively may be made to feel guilty for returning to work.
4. A weakness with the explanations of caregiver-infant interactions is that is not found in all cultures.
For example, Le Vine et al. (1994) reported that Kenyan mothers have little physical interactions or physical contact with their infants, but such infants do have a high proportion of secure attachments.
Therefore, what may the research be?
Therefore, the research may be ethnocentric
123
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is actually interactional synchrony or just natural movement.
This was a limitation of Meltzoff and Moore's study.
However, Meltzoff and Moore overcame this problem by filming infant responses and then asking an observer to judge the infant's behaviour from the video.
This increases the validity of their study, because the judge does not know what behaviour was being imitated (inter-rater reliability).
This suggests that although it can be difficult to test infants behaviour, the use of observers in a film can increase the internal validity of the study and therefore overcome this issue.
3. A weakness of research mother-infant interaction is that it could be considered unethical, because it is socially sensitive.
Isabella et al. (1989) found that high levels of interactional synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant interactions.
This suggests that mothers should not return to work so soon, because they may be considered a 'bad mother' or alternatively may be made to feel guilty for returning to work.
4. A weakness with the explanations of caregiver-infant interactions is that is not found in all cultures.
For example, Le Vine et al. (1994) reported that Kenyan mothers have little physical interactions or physical contact with their infants, but such infants do have a high proportion of secure attachments.
Therefore, the research may be ethnocentric and ignore what?
Therefore, the research:
1. May be ethnocentric
2. Ignore how attachments may be formed within other cultures
124
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is actually interactional synchrony or just natural movement.
This was a limitation of Meltzoff and Moore's study.
However, Meltzoff and Moore overcame this problem by filming infant responses and then asking an observer to judge the infant's behaviour from the video.
This increases the validity of their study, because the judge does not know what behaviour was being imitated (inter-rater reliability).
This suggests that although it can be difficult to test infants behaviour, the use of observers in a film can increase the internal validity of the study and therefore overcome this issue.
3. A weakness of research mother-infant interaction is that it could be considered unethical, because it is socially sensitive.
Isabella et al. (1989) found that high levels of interactional synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant interactions.
This suggests that mothers should not return to work so soon, because they may be considered a 'bad mother' or alternatively may be made to feel guilty for returning to work.
4. A weakness with the explanations of caregiver-infant interactions is that is not found in all cultures.
For example, Le Vine et al. (1994) reported that Kenyan mothers have little physical interactions or physical contact with their infants, but such infants do have a high proportion of secure attachments.
Therefore, the research may be ethnocentric and ignore how attachments may be formed within other cultures.
This reduces the what of the research?
This reduces the validity of the research
125
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Weaknesses:
1. A weakness of observations is that they don't tell us the purpose or reason of interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
So we are able to describe these terms and reliability observe them, but this may not be particularly useful, because it does not tell us their purpose.
For example, Feldman points out that interactional synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at the same time.
Further research into this area may be needed to explain the purpose of these caregiver-infant interactions.
However, there is some evidence that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are helpful in the development of attachment.
2. A weakness of observing infant interactions is that it is difficult to know what they mean by these interactions.
For example, you might observe hand movements or changes in expression, but it is difficult to know if this imitation of adult signals is deliberate or not, because infants are constantly moving.
Therefore, we cannot really know for certain that behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning and this means that it is difficult to distinguish between general activity and specific imitated behaviours.
Due to this, the internal validity of the data is poor, because of the uncertainty of whether what is being recorded is actually interactional synchrony or just natural movement.
This was a limitation of Meltzoff and Moore's study.
However, Meltzoff and Moore overcame this problem by filming infant responses and then asking an observer to judge the infant's behaviour from the video.
This increases the validity of their study, because the judge does not know what behaviour was being imitated (inter-rater reliability).
This suggests that although it can be difficult to test infants behaviour, the use of observers in a film can increase the internal validity of the study and therefore overcome this issue.
3. A weakness of research mother-infant interaction is that it could be considered unethical, because it is socially sensitive.
Isabella et al. (1989) found that high levels of interactional synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant interactions.
This suggests that mothers should not return to work so soon, because they may be considered a 'bad mother' or alternatively may be made to feel guilty for returning to work.
4. A weakness with the explanations of caregiver-infant interactions is that is not found in all cultures.
For example, Le Vine et al. (1994) reported that Kenyan mothers have little physical interactions or physical contact with their infants, but such infants do have a high proportion of secure attachments.
Therefore, the research may be ethnocentric and ignore how attachments may be formed within other cultures.
Why does this reduce the validity of the research?
This reduces the validity of the research, because all cultures should be taken into account in order to generalise as much as possible
126
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Strengths:
1. A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that they generally use what procedures?
A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that they generally use well-controlled procedures
127
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Strengths:
1. A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that they generally use well-controlled procedures with both who being filmed?
A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that they generally use well-controlled procedures with both the:
1. Mother
2. Infant
being filmed
128
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Strengths:
1. A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that they generally use well-controlled procedures with both the mother and the infant being filmed.
What does this ensure?
This ensures that the very fine details of behaviour can be:
1. Recorded
2. Later analysed
129
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Strengths:
1. A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that they generally use well-controlled procedures with both the mother and the infant being filmed.
This ensures that the very fine details of behaviour can be recorded and later analysed.
What does this mean?
This means that they are reliable
130
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Strengths:
1. A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that they generally use well-controlled procedures with both the mother and the infant being filmed.
This ensures that the very fine details of behaviour can be recorded and later analysed.
This means that they are reliable.
2. A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that babies don't what?
```
A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that babies don't:
1. Know
Or,
2. Care
that they are being observed
```
131
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Strengths:
1. A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that they generally use well-controlled procedures with both the mother and the infant being filmed.
This ensures that the very fine details of behaviour can be recorded and later analysed.
This means that they are reliable.
2. A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that babies don't know or care that they are being observed, so what?
A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that babies don't:
1. Know
Or,
2. Care
that they are being observed, so their behaviour does not change in response to controlled observations
132
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Strengths:
1. A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that they generally use well-controlled procedures with both the mother and the infant being filmed.
This ensures that the very fine details of behaviour can be recorded and later analysed.
This means that they are reliable.
2. A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that babies don't know or care that they are being observed, so their behaviour does not change in response to controlled observations.
Therefore, what does the research have?
Therefore, the research has good validity
133
Evaluation of research into caregiver-infant interaction:
Strengths:
1. A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that they generally use well-controlled procedures with both the mother and the infant being filmed.
This ensures that the very fine details of behaviour can be recorded and later analysed.
This means that they are reliable.
2. A strength of observations into caregiver-infant interactions is that babies don't know or care that they are being observed, so their behaviour does not change in response to controlled observations.
Therefore, the research has good validity, why?
Therefore, the research has good validity, because there are no demand characteristics
