2.5: Anxiety Flashcards
(145 cards)
1
Q
Anxiety
A
Anxiety is an unpleasant state of:
1. Emotional
2. Physical
arousal
2
Q
Anxiety is an unpleasant state of emotional and physical arousal.
The emotions include what?
A
The emotions include:
- Having worried thoughts
- Feelings of tension
3
Q
Anxiety is an unpleasant state of emotional and physical arousal.
The emotions include having worried thoughts and feelings of tension.
Physical changes of anxiety include what?
A
Physical changes of anxiety include:
- An increased heart rate
- Sweating
4
Q
Anxiety is an unpleasant state of emotional and physical arousal.
The emotions include having worried thoughts and feelings of tension.
Physical changes of anxiety include an increased heart rate and sweating.
Anxiety is a normal reaction to what situations?
A
Anxiety is a normal reaction to stressful situations
5
Q
Anxiety is an unpleasant state of emotional and physical arousal.
The emotions include having worried thoughts and feelings of tension.
Physical changes of anxiety include an increased heart rate and sweating.
Anxiety is a normal reaction to stressful situations, but can affect the what of eyewitness testimony?
A
Anxiety is a normal reaction to stressful situations, but can affect the:
1. Accuracy
2. Detail
of eyewitness testimony
6
Q
Anxiety has strong emotional and physical effects, but it is not clear whether these effects make eyewitness recall better or worse, because there is what?
A
Anxiety has strong emotional and physical effects, but it is not clear whether these effects make eyewitness recall:
1. Better
Or,
2. Worse
,because there is research to support both possibilities
7
Q
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses what?
A
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios
8
Q
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios that have no what?
A
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios that have no emotional involvement for witnesses
9
Q
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios that have no emotional involvement for witnesses.
Real life events, however, such as what?
A
Real life events, however, such as violent crimes
10
Q
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios that have no emotional involvement for witnesses.
Real life events, however, such as violent crimes, often have a high what content that can greatly affect recall?
A
Real life events, however, such as violent crimes, often have a high anxiety content that can greatly affect recall
11
Q
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios that have no emotional involvement for witnesses.
Real life events, however, such as violent crimes, often have a high anxiety content that can greatly affect recall.
One area of special interest is what?
A
One area of special interest is the degree to which anxiety might divert attention away from the important aspects of an event being witnessed
12
Q
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios that have no emotional involvement for witnesses.
Real life events, however, such as violent crimes, often have a high anxiety content that can greatly affect recall.
One area of special interest is the degree to which anxiety might divert attention away from the important aspects of an event being witnessed.
Who (what year) argued for the what effect?
A
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect’
13
Q
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios that have no emotional involvement for witnesses.
Real life events, however, such as violent crimes, often have a high anxiety content that can greatly affect recall.
One area of special interest is the degree to which anxiety might divert attention away from the important aspects of an event being witnessed.
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect,’ whereby what?
A
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect,’ whereby in violent crimes, arousal may focus the witness on more central details of the attack
14
Q
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios that have no emotional involvement for witnesses.
Real life events, however, such as violent crimes, often have a high anxiety content that can greatly affect recall.
One area of special interest is the degree to which anxiety might divert attention away from the important aspects of an event being witnessed.
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect,’ whereby in violent crimes, arousal may focus the witness on more central details of the attack, rather than what?
A
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect,’ whereby in violent crimes, arousal may focus the witness on:
1. More central details of the attack
,rather than:
2. The more peripheral details
15
Q
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios that have no emotional involvement for witnesses.
Real life events, however, such as violent crimes, often have a high anxiety content that can greatly affect recall.
One area of special interest is the degree to which anxiety might divert attention away from the important aspects of an event being witnessed.
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect,’ whereby in violent crimes, arousal may focus the witness on more central details of the attack (for example what), rather than the more peripheral details.
A
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect,’ whereby in violent crimes, arousal may focus the witness on:
1. More central details of the attack (for example the weapon)
,rather than:
2. The more peripheral details
16
Q
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios that have no emotional involvement for witnesses.
Real life events, however, such as violent crimes, often have a high anxiety content that can greatly affect recall.
One area of special interest is the degree to which anxiety might divert attention away from the important aspects of an event being witnessed.
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect,’ whereby in violent crimes, arousal may focus the witness on more central details of the attack (for example the weapon), rather than the more peripheral details (for example what)?
A
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect,’ whereby in violent crimes, arousal may focus the witness on:
1. More central details of the attack (for example the weapon)
,rather than:
2. The more peripheral details (for example what else was going on and what the perpetrator looked like)
17
Q
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios that have no emotional involvement for witnesses.
Real life events, however, such as violent crimes, often have a high anxiety content that can greatly affect recall.
One area of special interest is the degree to which anxiety might divert attention away from the important aspects of an event being witnessed.
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect,’ whereby in violent crimes, arousal may focus the witness on more central details of the attack (for example the weapon), rather than the more peripheral details (for example what else was going on and what the perpetrator looked like, as in the details of what)?
A
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect,’ whereby in violent crimes, arousal may focus the witness on more central details of the attack (for example the weapon), rather than the more peripheral details (for example what else was going on and what the perpetrator looked like, as in the details of their:
- Facial structure
- Clothes and shoes)
18
Q
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios that have no emotional involvement for witnesses.
Real life events, however, such as violent crimes, often have a high anxiety content that can greatly affect recall.
One area of special interest is the degree to which anxiety might divert attention away from the important aspects of an event being witnessed.
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect,’ whereby in violent crimes, arousal may focus the witness on more central details of the attack (for example the weapon), rather than the more peripheral details (for example what else was going on and what the perpetrator looked like, as in the details of their facial structure, like what, and their clothes and shoes)?
A
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect,’ whereby in violent crimes, arousal may focus the witness on more central details of the attack (for example the weapon), rather than the more peripheral details (for example what else was going on and what the perpetrator looked like, as in the details of their:
- Facial structure, like their chin, jaw and cheekbones
- Clothes and shoes)
19
Q
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios that have no emotional involvement for witnesses.
Real life events, however, such as violent crimes, often have a high anxiety content that can greatly affect recall.
One area of special interest is the degree to which anxiety might divert attention away from the important aspects of an event being witnessed.
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect,’ whereby in violent crimes, arousal may focus the witness on more central details of the attack (for example the weapon), rather than the more peripheral details (for example what else was going on and what the perpetrator looked like, as in the details of their facial structure, like their chin, jaw and cheekbones, and their clothes and shoes).
Witnesses to violent crimes focus on what, rather than what?
A
Witnesses to violent crimes focus on the:
1. Weapon being used
,rather than
2. Culprit’s face
20
Q
A main criticism of EWT research is that it often uses artificial scenarios that have no emotional involvement for witnesses.
Real life events, however, such as violent crimes, often have a high anxiety content that can greatly affect recall.
One area of special interest is the degree to which anxiety might divert attention away from the important aspects of an event being witnessed.
Loftus et al. (1987) argued for the ‘weapon-focus effect,’ whereby in violent crimes, arousal may focus the witness on more central details of the attack (for example the weapon), rather than the more peripheral details (for example what else was going on and what the perpetrator looked like, as in the details of their facial structure, like their chin, jaw and cheekbones, and their clothes and shoes).
Witnesses to violent crimes focus on the weapon being used, rather than the culprit’s face, negatively affecting what?
A
Witnesses to violent crimes focus on the:
1. Weapon being used
,rather than
2. Culprit’s face
,negatively affecting the ability to recall important details
21
Q
Psychologists have performed lots of research, using both what, to identify the ways in which anxiety affects EWT?
A
Psychologists have performed lots of research, using both:
1. Laboratory studies
2. Real-life events
,to identify the ways in which anxiety affects EWT
22
Q
Anxiety creates what in the body?
A
Anxiety creates physiological arousal in the body
23
Q
Anxiety creates physiological arousal in the body, that does what?
A
Anxiety creates physiological arousal in the body, that prevents us paying attention to important cues
24
Q
Anxiety creates physiological arousal in the body, that prevents us paying attention to important cues, so recall is what?
A
Anxiety creates physiological arousal in the body, that prevents us paying attention to important cues, so recall is worse
25
The what hypothesis (IUH)?
The Yerkes-Dodson inverted U hypothesis (IUH)
26
The Yerkes-Dodson inverted U hypothesis (IUH)
The Yerkes-Dodson inverted U hypothesis (IUH) is a description of the relationship between:
1. Emotional arousal
2. Performance
27
The Yerkes-Dodson inverted U hypothesis (IUH) is a description of the relationship between emotional arousal and performance.
According to Yerkes and Dodson (1908), the relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an 'inverted U.'
Who (what year) used the IUH to explain what?
Deffenbacher (1983) used the IUH to explain how anxiety levels affect the accuracy of recall of events experienced
28
The Yerkes-Dodson inverted U hypothesis (IUH) is a description of the relationship between emotional arousal and performance.
According to Yerkes and Dodson (1908), the relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an 'inverted U.'
Deffenbacher (1983) used the IUH to explain how anxiety levels affect the accuracy of recall of events experienced.
The IUH sees moderate amounts of anxiety as doing what?
The IUH sees moderate amounts of anxiety as improving the:
1. Detail
2. Accuracy
of memory recall up to an optimum (best) point
29
The Yerkes-Dodson inverted U hypothesis (IUH) is a description of the relationship between emotional arousal and performance.
According to Yerkes and Dodson (1908), the relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an 'inverted U.'
Deffenbacher (1983) used the IUH to explain how anxiety levels affect the accuracy of recall of events experienced.
The IUH sees moderate amounts of anxiety as improving the detail and accuracy of memory recall up to an optimum (best) point, after which further increases in anxiety lead to what?
The IUH sees moderate amounts of anxiety as improving the detail and accuracy of memory recall up to an optimum (best) point, after which further increases in anxiety lead to a decline in the:
1. Detail
2. Accuracy
of recall
30
The Yerkes-Dodson inverted U hypothesis (IUH) is a description of the relationship between emotional arousal and performance.
According to Yerkes and Dodson (1908), the relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an 'inverted U.'
Deffenbacher (1983) used the IUH to explain how anxiety levels affect the accuracy of recall of events experienced.
The IUH sees moderate amounts of anxiety as improving the detail and accuracy of memory recall up to an optimum (best) point, after which further increases in anxiety lead to a decline in the detail and accuracy of recall.
The findings of research have been used to investigate whether this is true, though it is difficult to reach what?
The findings of research have been used to investigate whether this is true, though it is difficult to reach any firm conclusions
31
The Yerkes-Dodson inverted U hypothesis (IUH) is a description of the relationship between emotional arousal and performance.
According to who (what year), the relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like what?
According to Yerkes and Dodson (1908), the relationship between:
1. Emotional arousal
2. Performance
looks like an 'inverted U'
32
Repression has also been offered up as what?
Repression has also been offered up as an explanation of how anxiety can affect the accuracy of recall
33
Repression has also been offered up as an explanation of how anxiety can affect the accuracy of recall.
Who (what year) argued that anxiety hinders what?
Freud (1894) argued that anxiety hinders the recall of memories
34
Repression has also been offered up as an explanation of how anxiety can affect the accuracy of recall.
Freud (1894) argued that anxiety hinders the recall of memories, because he saw forgetting as what?
Freud (1894) argued that anxiety hinders the recall of memories, because he saw forgetting as being motivated by the traumatic content of memories
35
Repression has also been offered up as an explanation of how anxiety can affect the accuracy of recall.
Freud (1894) argued that anxiety hinders the recall of memories, because he saw forgetting as being motivated by the traumatic content of memories.
What would be barred?
Access to the memories would be barred
36
Repression has also been offered up as an explanation of how anxiety can affect the accuracy of recall.
Freud (1894) argued that anxiety hinders the recall of memories, because he saw forgetting as being motivated by the traumatic content of memories.
Access to the memories would be barred, so as to do what?
Access to the memories would be barred, so as to protect individuals from the emotional distress they would cause
37
Repression has also been offered up as an explanation of how anxiety can affect the accuracy of recall.
Freud (1894) argued that anxiety hinders the recall of memories, because he saw forgetting as being motivated by the traumatic content of memories.
Access to the memories would be barred, so as to protect individuals from the emotional distress they would cause.
Research evidence is not without what?
Research evidence is not without criticism
38
Repression has also been offered up as an explanation of how anxiety can affect the accuracy of recall.
Freud (1894) argued that anxiety hinders the recall of memories, because he saw forgetting as being motivated by the traumatic content of memories.
Access to the memories would be barred, so as to protect individuals from the emotional distress they would cause.
Research evidence is not without criticism and some would argue whether what?
Research evidence is not without criticism and some would argue whether the concept actually exists in reality
39
Who (what year) found that if a person is carrying a weapon, then witnesses focus on the weapon rather than the person's face?
Loftus et al. (1987) found that if a person is carrying a weapon, then witnesses focus on the:
1. Weapon
rather than
2. Person's face
40
Loftus et al. (1987) found that if a person is carrying a weapon, then witnesses focus on the weapon rather than person's face, negatively affecting what?
Loftus et al. (1987) found that if a person is carrying a weapon, then witnesses focus on the:
1. Weapon
rather than
2. Person's face
,negatively affecting their ability to recall facial details of armed criminals
41
Loftus et al. (1987) found that if a person is carrying a weapon, then witnesses focus on the weapon rather than person's face, negatively affecting their ability to recall facial details of armed criminals, supporting the idea that what?
Loftus et al. (1987) found that if a person is carrying a weapon, then witnesses focus on the:
1. Weapon
rather than
2. Person's face
,negatively affecting their ability to recall facial details of armed criminals, supporting the idea that anxiety can divert attention from important features of a situation
42
Loftus et al. (1987) found that if a person is carrying a weapon, then witnesses focus on the weapon rather than person's face, negatively affecting their ability to recall facial details of armed criminals, supporting the idea that anxiety can divert attention from important features of a situation, in line with what?
Loftus et al. (1987) found that if a person is carrying a weapon, then witnesses focus on the:
1. Weapon
rather than
2. Person's face
,negatively affecting their ability to recall facial details of armed criminals, supporting the idea that anxiety can divert attention from important features of a situation, in line with the weapon-focus effect
43
Who (what year) performed a meta-analysis of 21 studies?
Deffenbacher (1983) performed a meta-analysis of 21 studies
44
Deffenbacher (1983) performed a meta-analysis of 21 studies examining what?
Deffenbacher (1983) performed a meta-analysis of 21 studies examining the role of anxiety in the accuracy of EWT
45
Deffenbacher (1983) performed a meta-analysis of 21 studies examining the role of anxiety in the accuracy of EWT, finding what?
Deffenbacher (1983) performed a meta-analysis of 21 studies examining the role of anxiety in the accuracy of EWT, finding that heightened anxiety tended to negatively affect the memory of eyewitnesses
46
Deffenbacher (1983) performed a meta-analysis of 21 studies examining the role of anxiety in the accuracy of EWT, finding that heightened anxiety tended to negatively affect the memory of eyewitnesses.
This again suggests that anxiety can do what?
This again suggests that anxiety can divert attention away from important features of a situation
47
Deffenbacher (1983) performed a meta-analysis of 21 studies examining the role of anxiety in the accuracy of EWT, finding that heightened anxiety tended to negatively affect the memory of eyewitnesses.
This again suggests that anxiety can divert attention away from important features of a situation.
However, who (what year) studied the recall of witnesses to real bank robberies?
Christianson and Hubinette (1993) studied the recall of witnesses to real bank robberies
48
Deffenbacher (1983) performed a meta-analysis of 21 studies examining the role of anxiety in the accuracy of EWT, finding that heightened anxiety tended to negatively affect the memory of eyewitnesses.
This again suggests that anxiety can divert attention away from important features of a situation.
However, Christianson and Hubinette (1993) studied the recall of witnesses to real bank robberies, finding what?
Christianson and Hubinette (1993) studied the recall of witnesses to real bank robberies, finding contradictory evidence
49
Deffenbacher (1983) performed a meta-analysis of 21 studies examining the role of anxiety in the accuracy of EWT, finding that heightened anxiety tended to negatively affect the memory of eyewitnesses.
This again suggests that anxiety can divert attention away from important features of a situation.
However, Christianson and Hubinette (1993) studied the recall of witnesses to real bank robberies, finding contradictory evidence, in that increased arousal led to what?
Christianson and Hubinette (1993) studied the recall of witnesses to real bank robberies, finding contradictory evidence, in that increased arousal led to improvements in the accuracy of recall
50
Deffenbacher (1983) performed a meta-analysis of 21 studies examining the role of anxiety in the accuracy of EWT, finding that heightened anxiety tended to negatively affect the memory of eyewitnesses.
This again suggests that anxiety can divert attention away from important features of a situation.
However, Christianson and Hubinette (1993) studied the recall of witnesses to real bank robberies, finding contradictory evidence, in that increased arousal led to improvements in the accuracy of recall, suggesting what?
Christianson and Hubinette (1993) studied the recall of witnesses to real bank robberies, finding contradictory evidence, in that increased arousal led to improvements in the accuracy of recall, suggesting that anxiety-creating situations don't always divert attention from important features of a situation
51
Deffenbacher (1983) performed a meta-analysis of 21 studies examining the role of anxiety in the accuracy of EWT, finding that heightened anxiety tended to negatively affect the memory of eyewitnesses.
This again suggests that anxiety can divert attention away from important features of a situation.
However, Christianson and Hubinette (1993) studied the recall of witnesses to real bank robberies, finding contradictory evidence, in that increased arousal led to improvements in the accuracy of recall, suggesting that anxiety-creating situations don't always divert attention from important features of a situation.
Christianson and Hubinette found that those real victims who had actually been what were more accurate in their recall?
Christianson and Hubinette found that those real victims who had actually been threatened were more accurate in their recall
52
Deffenbacher (1983) performed a meta-analysis of 21 studies examining the role of anxiety in the accuracy of EWT, finding that heightened anxiety tended to negatively affect the memory of eyewitnesses.
This again suggests that anxiety can divert attention away from important features of a situation.
However, Christianson and Hubinette (1993) studied the recall of witnesses to real bank robberies, finding contradictory evidence, in that increased arousal led to improvements in the accuracy of recall, suggesting that anxiety-creating situations don't always divert attention from important features of a situation.
Christianson and Hubinette found that those real victims who had actually been threatened were more accurate in their recall, compared to those who were what?
Christianson and Hubinette found that those real victims who had actually been threatened were more accurate in their recall, compared to those who were onlookers
53
Deffenbacher (1983) performed a meta-analysis of 21 studies examining the role of anxiety in the accuracy of EWT, finding that heightened anxiety tended to negatively affect the memory of eyewitnesses.
This again suggests that anxiety can divert attention away from important features of a situation.
However, Christianson and Hubinette (1993) studied the recall of witnesses to real bank robberies, finding contradictory evidence, in that increased arousal led to improvements in the accuracy of recall, suggesting that anxiety-creating situations don't always divert attention from important features of a situation.
Christianson and Hubinette found that those real victims who had actually been threatened were more accurate in their recall, compared to those who were onlookers.
This continued to be true when?
This continued to be true 15 months later
54
Who (what year) produced moderate anxiety in participants?
Ginet and Verkampt (2007) produced moderate anxiety in participants
55
Ginet and Verkampt (2007) produced moderate anxiety in participants by doing what?
Ginet and Verkampt (2007) produced moderate anxiety in participants by telling them that fake electrodes attached to them would give electric shocks
56
Ginet and Verkampt (2007) produced moderate anxiety in participants by telling them that fake electrodes attached to them would give electric shocks.
Their recall of what was superior to participants with lower anxiety?
1. Their recall of minor details of a traffic accident viewed on video
was superior to
2. Participants with lower anxiety
57
Ginet and Verkampt (2007) produced moderate anxiety in participants by telling them that fake electrodes attached to them would give electric shocks.
Their recall of minor details of a traffic accident viewed on video was superior to participants with lower anxiety, produced by what?
1. Their recall of minor details of a traffic accident viewed on video
was superior to
2. Participants with lower anxiety, produced by being told that the fake electrodes were purely for recording purposes
58
Ginet and Verkampt (2007) produced moderate anxiety in participants by telling them that fake electrodes attached to them would give electric shocks.
Their recall of minor details of a traffic accident viewed on video was superior to participants with lower anxiety, produced by being told that the fake electrodes were purely for recording purposes.
What does this imply?
This implies that moderate anxiety does increase EWT in line with IUH
59
Ginet and Verkampt (2007) produced moderate anxiety in participants by telling them that fake electrodes attached to them would give electric shocks.
Their recall of minor details of a traffic accident viewed on video was superior to participants with lower anxiety, produced by being told that the fake electrodes were purely for recording purposes.
This implies that moderate anxiety does increase EWT in line with IUH.
Who (what year) provided further support?
Peters (1988) provided further support
60
Ginet and Verkampt (2007) produced moderate anxiety in participants by telling them that fake electrodes attached to them would give electric shocks.
Their recall of minor details of a traffic accident viewed on video was superior to participants with lower anxiety, produced by being told that the fake electrodes were purely for recording purposes.
This implies that moderate anxiety does increase EWT in line with IUH.
Peters (1988) provided further support by testing who?
Peters (1988) provided further support by testing people attending their local health clinic for an injection
61
Ginet and Verkampt (2007) produced moderate anxiety in participants by telling them that fake electrodes attached to them would give electric shocks.
Their recall of minor details of a traffic accident viewed on video was superior to participants with lower anxiety, produced by being told that the fake electrodes were purely for recording purposes.
This implies that moderate anxiety does increase EWT in line with IUH.
Peters (1988) provided further support by testing people attending their local health clinic for an injection.
During the visit, they met who for equal amounts of time?
During the visit, they met a:
1. Nurse
2. Researcher
for equal periods of time
62
Ginet and Verkampt (2007) produced moderate anxiety in participants by telling them that fake electrodes attached to them would give electric shocks.
Their recall of minor details of a traffic accident viewed on video was superior to participants with lower anxiety, produced by being told that the fake electrodes were purely for recording purposes.
This implies that moderate anxiety does increase EWT in line with IUH.
Peters (1988) provided further support by testing people attending their local health clinic for an injection.
During the visit, they met a nurse, who gave them what, and a researcher for equal amounts of time?
During the visit, they met a:
1. Nurse, who gave them the injection
2. Researcher
for equal periods of time
63
Ginet and Verkampt (2007) produced moderate anxiety in participants by telling them that fake electrodes attached to them would give electric shocks.
Their recall of minor details of a traffic accident viewed on video was superior to participants with lower anxiety, produced by being told that the fake electrodes were purely for recording purposes.
This implies that moderate anxiety does increase EWT in line with IUH.
Peters (1988) provided further support by testing people attending their local health clinic for an injection.
During the visit, they met a nurse, who gave them the injection, and a researcher for equal amounts of time.
Later on, using what, the researcher proved what?
Later on, using photographs, the researcher proved easier to recognise than the nurse
64
Ginet and Verkampt (2007) produced moderate anxiety in participants by telling them that fake electrodes attached to them would give electric shocks.
Their recall of minor details of a traffic accident viewed on video was superior to participants with lower anxiety, produced by being told that the fake electrodes were purely for recording purposes.
This implies that moderate anxiety does increase EWT in line with IUH.
Peters (1988) provided further support by testing people attending their local health clinic for an injection.
During the visit, they met a nurse, who gave them the injection, and a researcher for equal amounts of time.
Later on, using photographs, the researcher proved easier to recognise than the nurse, suggesting what?
Later on, using photographs, the researcher proved easier to recognise than the nurse, suggesting that the heightened anxiety levels due to the injection led to a decrease in memory accuracy
65
Witnessing what often has much more emotional impact than a laboratory study?
Witnessing a real life incident often has much more of an emotional impact than a laboratory study
66
Who (what year) found that participants who were anxious from viewing emotionally negative events?
Oue et al. (2001) found that participants who were anxious from viewing emotionally negative events
67
Oue et al. (2001) found that participants who were anxious from viewing emotionally negative events recalled what?
Oue et al. (2001) found that participants who were anxious from viewing emotionally negative events recalled less details
68
Oue et al. (2001) found that participants who were anxious from viewing emotionally negative events recalled less details from where?
Oue et al. (2001) found that participants who were anxious from viewing emotionally negative events recalled less details from the edge of a scene
69
Oue et al. (2001) found that participants who were anxious from viewing emotionally negative events recalled less details from the edge of a scene than participants witnessing what?
Oue et al. (2001) found that:
1. Participants who were anxious from viewing emotionally negative events
recalled less details from the edge of a scene than
2. Participants witnessing emotionally neutral events
70
Oue et al. (2001) found that participants who were anxious from viewing emotionally negative events recalled less details from the edge of a scene than participants witnessing emotionally neutral events.
What does this suggest?
This suggests that anxiety reduces witnesses' fields of view
71
Who (what year) found participants were less able to recall what than what words?
Koehler et al. (2002) found participants were less able to recall:
1. Stressful words
than
2. Non-stressful words
72
Koehler et al. (2002) found participants were less able to recall stressful words than non-stressful words, giving support to what?
Koehler et al. (2002) found participants were less able to recall:
1. Stressful words
than
2. Non-stressful words
,giving support to Freud's concept of repression
73
Koehler et al. (2002) found participants were less able to recall stressful words than non-stressful words, giving support to Freud's concept of repression.
However, who (what year) found that stressful words were what?
Hadley and MacKay (2006) found that stressful words were better recalled
74
Koehler et al. (2002) found participants were less able to recall stressful words than non-stressful words, giving support to Freud's concept of repression.
However, Hadley and MacKay (2006) found that stressful words were better recalled, as they were more what?
Hadley and MacKay (2006) found that stressful words were better recalled, as they were more memorable
75
Koehler et al. (2002) found participants were less able to recall stressful words than non-stressful words, giving support to Freud's concept of repression.
However, Hadley and MacKay (2006) found that stressful words were better recalled, as they were more memorable, suggesting what?
Hadley and MacKay (2006) found that stressful words were better recalled, as they were more memorable, suggesting that repression may occur in some instances
76
Koehler et al. (2002) found participants were less able to recall stressful words than non-stressful words, giving support to Freud's concept of repression.
However, Hadley and MacKay (2006) found that stressful words were better recalled, as they were more memorable, suggesting that repression may occur in some instances, but not how?
Hadley and MacKay (2006) found that stressful words were better recalled, as they were more memorable, suggesting that repression may occur:
1. In some instances
,but
2. Not always
77
One approach to studying anxiety and eyewitness testimony (EWT) has been to look at the effect of what (which create anxiety) on what?
One approach to studying:
1. Anxiety
2. Eyewitness testimony (EWT)
has been to look at the effect of weapons (which create anxiety) on accuracy of recall of the witness
78
One approach to studying anxiety and eyewitness testimony (EWT) has been to look at the effect of weapons (which create anxiety) on accuracy of recall of the witness.
Who (what year) did research on this?
Johnson and Scott (1976) did research on this
79
One approach to studying anxiety and eyewitness testimony (EWT) has been to look at the effect of weapons (which create anxiety) on accuracy of recall of the witness.
Johnson and Scott (1976) did research on this.
They led participants to believe that they were going to do what?
They led participants to believe that they were going to take part in a laboratory study
80
One approach to studying anxiety and eyewitness testimony (EWT) has been to look at the effect of weapons (which create anxiety) on accuracy of recall of the witness.
Johnson and Scott (1976) did research on this.
They led participants to believe that they were going to take part in a laboratory study.
While seated where, participants heard what?
While seated in a waiting room, participants heard an argument in the next room
81
One approach to studying anxiety and eyewitness testimony (EWT) has been to look at the effect of weapons (which create anxiety) on accuracy of recall of the witness.
Johnson and Scott (1976) did research on this.
They led participants to believe that they were going to take part in a laboratory study.
While seated in a waiting room, participants heard an argument in the next room.
In the 'low-anxiety' condition, what happened?
In the 'low-anxiety' condition, a man then:
1. Walked through the waiting area, carrying a pen
2. With grease on his hands
82
One approach to studying anxiety and eyewitness testimony (EWT) has been to look at the effect of weapons (which create anxiety) on accuracy of recall of the witness.
Johnson and Scott (1976) did research on this.
They led participants to believe that they were going to take part in a laboratory study.
While seated in a waiting room, participants heard an argument in the next room.
In the 'low-anxiety' condition, a man then walked through the waiting area, carrying a pen and with grease on his hands.
Other participants overheard the same heated argument, but this time accompanied by what?
Other participants overheard the same heated argument, but this time accompanied by the sound of breaking glass
83
One approach to studying anxiety and eyewitness testimony (EWT) has been to look at the effect of weapons (which create anxiety) on accuracy of recall of the witness.
Johnson and Scott (1976) did research on this.
They led participants to believe that they were going to take part in a laboratory study.
While seated in a waiting room, participants heard an argument in the next room.
In the 'low-anxiety' condition, a man then walked through the waiting area, carrying a pen and with grease on his hands.
Other participants overheard the same heated argument, but this time accompanied by the sound of breaking glass.
Then, what happened?
Then, a man walked out of the room, holding a paper knife that was covered in blood
84
One approach to studying anxiety and eyewitness testimony (EWT) has been to look at the effect of weapons (which create anxiety) on accuracy of recall of the witness.
Johnson and Scott (1976) did research on this.
They led participants to believe that they were going to take part in a laboratory study.
While seated in a waiting room, participants heard an argument in the next room.
In the 'low-anxiety' condition, a man then walked through the waiting area, carrying a pen and with grease on his hands.
Other participants overheard the same heated argument, but this time accompanied by the sound of breaking glass.
Then, a man walked out of the room, holding a paper knife that was covered in blood.
This was the what condition?
This was the 'high-anxiety' condition
85
One approach to studying anxiety and eyewitness testimony (EWT) has been to look at the effect of weapons (which create anxiety) on accuracy of recall of the witness.
Johnson and Scott (1976) did research on this.
They led participants to believe that they were going to take part in a laboratory study.
While seated in a waiting room, participants heard an argument in the next room.
In the 'low-anxiety' condition, a man then walked through the waiting area, carrying a pen and with grease on his hands.
Other participants overheard the same heated argument, but this time accompanied by the sound of breaking glass.
Then, a man walked out of the room, holding a paper knife that was covered in blood.
This was the 'high-anxiety' condition.
The findings of this study are that the participants later did what?
The findings of this study are that the participants later picked out the man from a set of 50 photos
86
One approach to studying anxiety and eyewitness testimony (EWT) has been to look at the effect of weapons (which create anxiety) on accuracy of recall of the witness.
Johnson and Scott (1976) did research on this.
They led participants to believe that they were going to take part in a laboratory study.
While seated in a waiting room, participants heard an argument in the next room.
In the 'low-anxiety' condition, a man then walked through the waiting area, carrying a pen and with grease on his hands.
Other participants overheard the same heated argument, but this time accompanied by the sound of breaking glass.
Then, a man walked out of the room, holding a paper knife that was covered in blood.
This was the 'high-anxiety' condition.
The findings of this study are that the participants later picked out the man from a set of 50 photos.
What % of the participants who had seen the man carrying the what were able to identify him?
49% of the participants who had seen the man carrying the pen were able to identify him
87
One approach to studying anxiety and eyewitness testimony (EWT) has been to look at the effect of weapons (which create anxiety) on accuracy of recall of the witness.
Johnson and Scott (1976) did research on this.
They led participants to believe that they were going to take part in a laboratory study.
While seated in a waiting room, participants heard an argument in the next room.
In the 'low-anxiety' condition, a man then walked through the waiting area, carrying a pen and with grease on his hands.
Other participants overheard the same heated argument, but this time accompanied by the sound of breaking glass.
Then, a man walked out of the room, holding a paper knife that was covered in blood.
This was the 'high-anxiety' condition.
The findings of this study are that the participants later picked out the man from a set of 50 photos.
49% of the participants who had seen the man carrying the pen were able to identify him.
The corresponding figure for the participants who had seen the man holding the what was just what?
The corresponding figure for the participants who had seen the man holding the blood-covered knife was just 33%
88
One approach to studying anxiety and eyewitness testimony (EWT) has been to look at the effect of weapons (which create anxiety) on accuracy of recall of the witness.
Johnson and Scott (1976) did research on this.
They led participants to believe that they were going to take part in a laboratory study.
While seated in a waiting room, participants heard an argument in the next room.
In the 'low-anxiety' condition, a man then walked through the waiting area, carrying a pen and with grease on his hands.
Other participants overheard the same heated argument, but this time accompanied by the sound of breaking glass.
Then, a man walked out of the room, holding a paper knife that was covered in blood.
This was the 'high-anxiety' condition.
The findings of this study are that the participants later picked out the man from a set of 50 photos.
49% of the participants who had seen the man carrying the pen were able to identify him.
The corresponding figure for the participants who had seen the man holding the blood-covered knife was just 33%.
The what theory of memory argues that a witness' attention narrows to focus on a weapon, because it is what?
The tunnel theory of memory argues that a witness' attention narrows to focus on a weapon, because it is a source of anxiety
89
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The what is triggered?
The fight-or-flight response is triggered
90
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which does what?
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which:
1. Increases our alertness
2. Improves our memory for the event
91
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more what?
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which:
1. Increases our alertness
2. Improves our memory for the event
,because we become more aware of cues in the situation
92
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Who (what year) conducted a study of a real life shooting where?
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop
93
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop where?
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada
94
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had done what?
The shop owner had shot a thief dead
95
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
How many witnesses were there?
There were 21 witnesses
96
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
There were 21 witnesses.
How many agreed to take part in the study?
13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study
97
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
There were 21 witnesses.
13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study.
The interviews were held when?
The interviews were held 4 - 5 months after the incident
98
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
There were 21 witnesses.
13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study.
The interviews were held 4 - 5 months after the incident and these were compared with what?
The interviews were held 4 - 5 months after the incident and these were compared with the original police interviews made at the time of the shooting
99
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
There were 21 witnesses.
13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study.
The interviews were held 4 - 5 months after the incident and these were compared with the original police interviews made at the time of the shooting.
Accuracy was determined by what?
Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account
100
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
There were 21 witnesses.
13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study.
The interviews were held 4 - 5 months after the incident and these were compared with the original police interviews made at the time of the shooting.
Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account.
The witnesses were also asked to rate what?
The witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident
101
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
There were 21 witnesses.
13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study.
The interviews were held 4 - 5 months after the incident and these were compared with the original police interviews made at the time of the shooting.
Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account.
The witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident, using a what scale?
The witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident, using a 7 point scale
102
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
There were 21 witnesses.
13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study.
The interviews were held 4 - 5 months after the incident and these were compared with the original police interviews made at the time of the shooting.
Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account.
The witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident, using a 7 point scale, and asked what?
The witnesses:
1. Were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident, using a 7 point scale
2. Asked if they had any emotional problems since the event
103
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
There were 21 witnesses.
13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study.
The interviews were held 4 - 5 months after the incident and these were compared with the original police interviews made at the time of the shooting.
Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account.
The witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident, using a 7 point scale, and asked if they had any emotional problems since the event, such as what?
The witnesses:
1. Were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident, using a 7 point scale
2. Asked if they had any emotional problems since the event, such as sleeplessness
104
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
There were 21 witnesses.
13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study.
The interviews were held 4 - 5 months after the incident and these were compared with the original police interviews made at the time of the shooting.
Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account.
The witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident, using a 7 point scale, and asked if they had any emotional problems since the event, such as sleeplessness.
The findings of this study are that the witnesses were what?
The findings of this study are that the witnesses were very accurate in their accounts
105
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
There were 21 witnesses.
13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study.
The interviews were held 4 - 5 months after the incident and these were compared with the original police interviews made at the time of the shooting.
Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account.
The witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident, using a 7 point scale, and asked if they had any emotional problems since the event, such as sleeplessness.
The findings of this study are that the witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little what after 5 months?
```
The findings of this study are that the witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the:
1. Amount
Or,
2. Accuracy
after 5 months
```
106
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
There were 21 witnesses.
13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study.
The interviews were held 4 - 5 months after the incident and these were compared with the original police interviews made at the time of the shooting.
Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account.
The witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident, using a 7 point scale, and asked if they had any emotional problems since the event, such as sleeplessness.
The findings of this study are that the witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount or accuracy after 5 months, though some details were what?
The findings of this study are that the witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the:
1. Amount
Or,
2. Accuracy
after 5 months, though some details were less accurate
107
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
There were 21 witnesses.
13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study.
The interviews were held 4 - 5 months after the incident and these were compared with the original police interviews made at the time of the shooting.
Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account.
The witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident, using a 7 point scale, and asked if they had any emotional problems since the event, such as sleeplessness.
The findings of this study are that the witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount or accuracy after 5 months, though some details were less accurate, such as what?
The findings of this study are that the witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount or accuracy after 5 months, though some details were less accurate, such as:
1. Recollection of the colour of items
2. Age/height/weight estimates
108
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
There were 21 witnesses.
13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study.
The interviews were held 4 - 5 months after the incident and these were compared with the original police interviews made at the time of the shooting.
Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account.
The witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident, using a 7 point scale, and asked if they had any emotional problems since the event, such as sleeplessness.
The findings of this study are that the witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount or accuracy after 5 months, though some details were less accurate, such as recollection of the colour of items and age/height/weight estimates.
Those participants who reported the highest levels of stress were what?
Those participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate
109
The stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body.
The fight-or-flight response is triggered, which increases our alertness and improves our memory for the event, because we become more aware of cues in the situation.
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of a real life shooting in a gun shop in Vancouver, Canada.
The shop owner had shot a thief dead.
There were 21 witnesses.
13 witnesses agreed to take part in the study.
The interviews were held 4 - 5 months after the incident and these were compared with the original police interviews made at the time of the shooting.
Accuracy was determined by the number of details reported in each account.
The witnesses were also asked to rate how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident, using a 7 point scale, and asked if they had any emotional problems since the event, such as sleeplessness.
The findings of this study are that the witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was little change in the amount or accuracy after 5 months, though some details were less accurate, such as recollection of the colour of items and age/height/weight estimates.
Those participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate (about what % compared to what % for the less-stressed group)?
Those participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate (about 88% compared to 75% for the less-stressed group)
110
One problem with many laboratory-based and real life studies of anxiety is that they only do what?
One problem with many:
1. Laboratory-based
2. Real life studies
of anxiety is that they only compare high and low anxiety groups
111
One problem with many laboratory-based and real life studies of anxiety is that they only compare high and low anxiety groups.
What theory cannot be properly tested?
The inverted U theory cannot be properly tested
112
One problem with many laboratory-based and real life studies of anxiety is that they only compare high and low anxiety groups.
The inverted U theory cannot be properly tested, unless what?
The inverted U theory cannot be properly tested, unless there is a moderate anxiety group as well
113
Evaluation:
| The weapon focus effect may not be what?
The weapon focus effect may not be relevant
114
Evaluation:
The weapon focus effect may not be relevant.
The study by who on the weapon focus effect may test what rather than anxiety?
The study by Johnson and Scott on the weapon focus effect may test:
1. Surprise
rather than
2. Anxiety
115
Evaluation:
The weapon focus effect may not be relevant.
The study by Johnson and Scott on the weapon focus effect may test surprise rather than anxiety.
The reason participants focus on the weapon may be because they are surprised at what they see, rather than because they are what?
The reason participants focus on the weapon may be:
1. Because they are surprised at what they see
,rather than
2. Because they are scared
116
Evaluation:
The weapon focus effect may not be relevant.
The study by Johnson and Scott on the weapon focus effect may test surprise rather than anxiety.
The reason participants focus on the weapon may be because they are surprised at what they see, rather than because they are scared.
Who (what year) conducted an experiment using what?
```
Pickel (1998) conducted an experiment using:
1. Scissors
2. A handgun
3. A wallet
Or,
4. A raw chicken
```
117
Evaluation:
The weapon focus effect may not be relevant.
The study by Johnson and Scott on the weapon focus effect may test surprise rather than anxiety.
The reason participants focus on the weapon may be because they are surprised at what they see, rather than because they are scared.
Pickel (1998) conducted an experiment using scissors, a handgun, a wallet or a raw chicken as what?
Pickel (1998) conducted an experiment using:
1. Scissors
2. A handgun
3. A wallet
Or,
4. A raw chicken
as the hand-held items in a hairdressing salon video
118
Evaluation:
The weapon focus effect may not be relevant.
The study by Johnson and Scott on the weapon focus effect may test surprise rather than anxiety.
The reason participants focus on the weapon may be because they are surprised at what they see, rather than because they are scared.
Pickel (1998) conducted an experiment using scissors, a handgun, a wallet or a raw chicken as the hand-held items in a hairdressing salon video (where scissors would be low what?)
Pickel (1998) conducted an experiment using scissors, a handgun, a wallet or a raw chicken as the hand-held items in a hairdressing salon video (where scissors would be:
1. Low anxiety
2. Low unusualness
119
Evaluation:
The weapon focus effect may not be relevant.
The study by Johnson and Scott on the weapon focus effect may test surprise rather than anxiety.
The reason participants focus on the weapon may be because they are surprised at what they see, rather than because they are scared.
Pickel (1998) conducted an experiment using scissors, a handgun, a wallet or a raw chicken as the hand-held items in a hairdressing salon video (where scissors would be low anxiety and low unusualness).
What was significantly poorer in the high unusualness conditions?
Eyewitness accuracy was significantly poorer in the high unusualness conditions
120
Evaluation:
The weapon focus effect may not be relevant.
The study by Johnson and Scott on the weapon focus effect may test surprise rather than anxiety.
The reason participants focus on the weapon may be because they are surprised at what they see, rather than because they are scared.
Pickel (1998) conducted an experiment using scissors, a handgun, a wallet or a raw chicken as the hand-held items in a hairdressing salon video (where scissors would be low anxiety and low unusualness).
Eyewitness accuracy was significantly poorer in the high unusualness conditions (what)?
Eyewitness accuracy was significantly poorer in the high unusualness conditions
1. (The handgun
2. The raw chicken)
121
Evaluation:
The weapon focus effect may not be relevant.
The study by Johnson and Scott on the weapon focus effect may test surprise rather than anxiety.
The reason participants focus on the weapon may be because they are surprised at what they see, rather than because they are scared.
Pickel (1998) conducted an experiment using scissors, a handgun, a wallet or a raw chicken as the hand-held items in a hairdressing salon video (where scissors would be low anxiety and low unusualness).
Eyewitness accuracy was significantly poorer in the high unusualness conditions (the handgun and the raw chicken).
What does this suggest?
This suggests that the weapon focus effect is due to:
1. Unusualness
rather than
2. Anxiety/threat
122
Evaluation:
The weapon focus effect may not be relevant.
The study by Johnson and Scott on the weapon focus effect may test surprise rather than anxiety.
The reason participants focus on the weapon may be because they are surprised at what they see, rather than because they are scared.
Pickel (1998) conducted an experiment using scissors, a handgun, a wallet or a raw chicken as the hand-held items in a hairdressing salon video (where scissors would be low anxiety and low unusualness).
Eyewitness accuracy was significantly poorer in the high unusualness conditions (the handgun and the raw chicken).
This suggests that the weapon focus effect is due to unusualness rather than anxiety/threat and therefore tells us nothing specifically about what?
This:
1. Suggests that the weapon focus effect is due to unusualness rather than anxiety/threat
2. Therefore tells us nothing specifically about the effects of anxiety on eyewitness testimony
123
Evaluation:
| Field studies sometimes lack what?
Field studies sometimes lack control
124
Evaluation:
Field studies sometimes lack control.
Researchers usually interview real-life eyewitnesses when?
Researchers usually interview real-life eyewitnesses some time after the event
125
Evaluation:
Field studies sometimes lack control.
Researchers usually interview real-life eyewitnesses some time after the event.
What will have happened to the participants in the meantime that the researchers have no control over?
All sorts of things will have happened to the participants in the meantime that the researchers have no control over
126
Evaluation:
Field studies sometimes lack control.
Researchers usually interview real-life eyewitnesses some time after the event.
All sorts of things will have happened to the participants in the meantime that the researchers have no control over.
Examples
For example:
1. Discussions with other people about the event
2. Accounts they may have read or seen in the media
3. The effects of being interviewed by the police
127
Evaluation:
Field studies sometimes lack control.
Researchers usually interview real-life eyewitnesses some time after the event.
All sorts of things will have happened to the participants in the meantime that the researchers have no control over.
For example, discussions with other people about the event, accounts they may have read or seen in the media and the effects of being interviewed by the police.
What is this?
This is post-event discussion
128
Evaluation:
Field studies sometimes lack control.
Researchers usually interview real-life eyewitnesses some time after the event.
All sorts of things will have happened to the participants in the meantime that the researchers have no control over.
This is a limitation of field research, because it is possible that these what may be responsible for the accuracy of recall?
This is a limitation of field research, because it is possible that these extraneous variables may be responsible for the accuracy of recall
129
Evaluation:
| There are what issues?
There are ethical issues
130
Evaluation:
There are ethical issues.
Creating anxiety in participants is very what?
Creating anxiety in participants is very risky
131
Evaluation:
There are ethical issues.
Creating anxiety in participants is very risky.
Why is it potentially unethical?
It is potentially unethical, because it may subject people to psychological harm
132
Evaluation:
There are ethical issues.
Creating anxiety in participants is very risky.
It is potentially unethical, because it may subject people to psychological harm, purely for what?
It is potentially unethical, because it may subject people to psychological harm, purely for the purposes of research
133
Evaluation:
There are ethical issues.
Creating anxiety in participants is very risky.
It is potentially unethical, because it may subject people to psychological harm, purely for the purposes of research.
This is why what are so beneficial?
This is why real-life studies are so beneficial
134
Evaluation:
There are ethical issues.
Creating anxiety in participants is very risky.
It is potentially unethical, because it may subject people to psychological harm, purely for the purposes of research.
This is why real-life studies are so beneficial, because psychologists interview people who have already witnessed a real-life event, so there is no need to do what?
This is why real-life studies are so beneficial, because psychologists interview people who have already witnessed a real-life event, so there is no need to create it
135
Evaluation:
There are ethical issues.
Creating anxiety in participants is very risky.
It is potentially unethical, because it may subject people to psychological harm, purely for the purposes of research.
This is why real-life studies are so beneficial, because psychologists interview people who have already witnessed a real-life event, so there is no need to create it.
This issue doesn't challenge the findings from studies such as Johnson and Scott's, but it does question what?
This issue:
1. Doesn't challenge the findings from studies such as Johnson and Scott's
,but:
2. It does question the need for such research
136
Evaluation:
| The inverted U explanation is too what?
The inverted U explanation is too simplistic
137
Evaluation:
The inverted U explanation is too simplistic.
Anxiety is very difficult to do what accurately?
Anxiety is very difficult to:
1. Define
2. Measure
accurately
138
Evaluation:
The inverted U explanation is too simplistic.
Anxiety is very difficult to define and measure accurately.
One reason for this is that it has many what?
One reason for this is that anxiety has many elements:
1. Cognitive
2. Behavioural
3. Emotional
139
Evaluation:
The inverted U explanation is too simplistic.
Anxiety is very difficult to define and measure accurately.
One reason for this is that anxiety has many elements - Cognitive, behavioural and emotional.
However, the inverted U explanation assumes what?
The inverted U explanation assumes that only one of these is linked to poor performance
140
Evaluation:
The inverted U explanation is too simplistic.
Anxiety is very difficult to define and measure accurately.
One reason for this is that anxiety has many elements - Cognitive, behavioural and emotional.
However, the inverted U explanation assumes that only one of these is linked to poor performance - what?
The inverted U explanation assumes that only one of these is linked to poor performance - physiological (physical) arousal
141
Evaluation:
The inverted U explanation is too simplistic.
Anxiety is very difficult to define and measure accurately.
One reason for this is that anxiety has many elements - Cognitive, behavioural and emotional.
However, the inverted U explanation assumes that only one of these is linked to poor performance - physiological (physical) arousal.
The inverted U theory is an incomplete explanation of how anxiety affects eyewitness testimony, because there is more to the relationship between anxiety and eyewitness testimony than just what, for instance?
The inverted U theory is an incomplete explanation of how anxiety affects eyewitness testimony, because there is more to the relationship between:
1. Anxiety
2. Eyewitness testimony
than just physiological arousal, for instance
142
Evaluation:
| Most laboratory studies show participants a what crime?
Most laboratory studies show participants a:
1. Filmed
2. Usually staged
crime
143
Evaluation:
Most laboratory studies show participants a filmed and usually staged crime.
Most of these participants will be aware they are what?
Most of these participants will be aware they are watching a filmed crime for a reason to do with the study
144
Evaluation:
Most laboratory studies show participants a filmed and usually staged crime.
Most of these participants will be aware they are watching a filmed crime for a reason to do with the study.
The chances are the most of them will work out for themselves that they are going to be what?
The chances are the most of them will work out for themselves that they are going to be asked questions about what they have seen
145
Evaluation:
| Care must be taken with studies of anxiety and EWT, because, by their very nature, what could such studies produce?
Care must be taken with studies of anxiety and EWT, because, by their very nature, such studies could produce potentially high levels of psychological harm
