2.2: The WMM and the central executive (CE) Flashcards
1
Q
A limitation of the multi-store model (MSM) is that the stores were described as what?
A
A limitation of the multi-store model (MSM) is that the stores were described as single units
2
Q
A limitation of the multi-store model (MSM) is that the stores were described as single units.
From Tulving’s research, we now know that the LTM can be what?
A
From Tulving’s research, we now know that the LTM can be sub-divided
3
Q
A limitation of the multi-store model (MSM) is that the stores were described as single units.
From Tulving’s research, we now know that the LTM can be sub-divided.
Who found that STM also has what?
A
Baddeley and Hitch found that STM also has subdivisions
4
Q
The working memory model (WMM)
A
The working memory model (WMM) is an explanation of memory that sees STM as an active store holding several pieces of information simultaneously
5
Q
Who (what year) questioned the existence of a what?
A
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) questioned the existence of a single STM store
6
Q
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) questioned the existence of a single STM store (their WMM doesn’t concern what)?
A
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) questioned the existence of a single STM store (their WMM doesn’t concern LTM)
7
Q
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) questioned the existence of a single STM store (their WMM doesn’t concern LTM), arguing that STM was more what than just being a what for doing what?
A
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) questioned the existence of a single STM store (their WMM doesn’t concern LTM), arguing that STM was more complex than just being a temporary store for transferring information to LTM
8
Q
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) questioned the existence of a single STM store (their WMM doesn’t concern LTM), arguing that STM was more complex than just being a temporary store for transferring information to LTM.
Baddeley and Hitch saw STM as a what store?
A
Baddeley and Hitch saw STM as an ‘active’ store
9
Q
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) questioned the existence of a single STM store (their WMM doesn’t concern LTM), arguing that STM was more complex than just being a temporary store for transferring information to LTM.
Baddeley and Hitch saw STM as an ‘active’ store, holding what while they were being worked on?
A
Baddeley and Hitch saw STM as an ‘active’ store, holding several pieces of information while they were being worked on
10
Q
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) questioned the existence of a single STM store (their WMM doesn’t concern LTM), arguing that STM was more complex than just being a temporary store for transferring information to LTM.
Baddeley and Hitch saw STM as an ‘active’ store, holding several pieces of information while they were being worked on (hence what)?
A
Baddeley and Hitch saw STM as an ‘active’ store, holding several pieces of information while they were being worked on (hence ‘working’ memory)
11
Q
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) questioned the existence of a single STM store (their WMM doesn’t concern LTM), arguing that STM was more complex than just being a temporary store for transferring information to LTM.
Baddeley and Hitch saw STM as an ‘active’ store, holding several pieces of information while they were being worked on (hence ‘working’ memory).
Who (what year) described working memory as what?
A
Cohen (1990) described working memory as the ‘focus of consciousness’
12
Q
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) questioned the existence of a single STM store (their WMM doesn’t concern LTM), arguing that STM was more complex than just being a temporary store for transferring information to LTM.
Baddeley and Hitch saw STM as an ‘active’ store, holding several pieces of information while they were being worked on (hence ‘working’ memory).
Cohen (1990) described working memory as the ‘focus of consciousness - It holds what?’
A
Cohen (1990) described working memory as the ‘focus of consciousness - It holds information consciously thought about now’
13
Q
The working memory model (WMM) should not be seen as what?
A
The working memory model (WMM) should not be seen as a replacement for the MSM
14
Q
The working memory model (WMM) should not be seen as a replacement for the MSM, but more as what?
A
The working memory model (WMM) should not be seen as a replacement for the MSM, but more as an explanation based upon the MSM
15
Q
The working memory model (WMM) should not be seen as a replacement for the MSM, but more as an explanation based upon the MSM.
To replace the single STM store of the MSM, Baddeley and Hitch proposed what?
A
To replace the single STM store of the MSM, Baddeley and Hitch proposed a multi-component working memory (WM) of initially 3 components
16
Q
The working memory model (WMM) should not be seen as a replacement for the MSM, but more as an explanation based upon the MSM.
To replace the single STM store of the MSM, Baddeley and Hitch proposed a multi-component working memory (WM) of initially 3 components.
At the head of the working memory model is what?
A
At the head of the working memory model is the central executive (CE)
17
Q
The working memory model (WMM) should not be seen as a replacement for the MSM, but more as an explanation based upon the MSM.
To replace the single STM store of the MSM, Baddeley and Hitch proposed a multi-component working memory (WM) of initially 3 components.
At the head of the working memory model is the central executive (CE), which does what?
A
At the head of the working memory model is the central executive (CE), which oversees the 2 ‘slave’ systems, the:
- Phonological loop (PL)
- Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS)
18
Q
The working memory model (WMM) should not be seen as a replacement for the MSM, but more as an explanation based upon the MSM.
To replace the single STM store of the MSM, Baddeley and Hitch proposed a multi-component working memory (WM) of initially 3 components.
At the head of the working memory model is the central executive (CE), which oversees the 2 ‘slave’ systems, the phonological loop (PL) and the visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS), what stores that do what?
A
At the head of the working memory model is the central executive (CE), which oversees the 2 ‘slave’ systems, the:
1. Phonological loop (PL)
2. Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS)
,temporary stores that process specific types of information
19
Q
The working memory model (WMM) should not be seen as a replacement for the MSM, but more as an explanation based upon the MSM.
To replace the single STM store of the MSM, Baddeley and Hitch proposed a multi-component working memory (WM) of initially 3 components.
At the head of the working memory model is the central executive (CE), which oversees the 2 ‘slave’ systems, the phonological loop (PL) and the visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS), temporary stores that process specific types of information.
A 4th component, the what, was added in 2000 to address what?
A
A 4th component, the episodic buffer (EB), was added in 2000 to address shortcomings of the model
20
Q
Central executive (CE)
A
The central executive (CE) is a component of the WMM that:
1. Oversees
2. Coordinates
the components of working memory
21
Q
The working memory model (WMM) is concerned with the part of the mind that is what when we are doing what?
A
The working memory model (WMM) is concerned with the part of the mind that is active when we are temporarily:
1. Storing
2. Manipulating
information
22
Q
The working memory model (WMM) is concerned with the part of the mind that is active when we are temporarily storing and manipulating information.
Example
A
For example, when: 1. Working on an arithmetic problem 2. Playing chess Or, 3. Comprehending language
23
Q
The working memory model (WMM) consists of 4 main components, each of which is what?
A
The working memory model (WMM) consists of 4 main components, each of which is qualitatively different
24
Q
The working memory model (WMM) consists of 4 main components, each of which is qualitatively different in terms of what?
A
The working memory model (WMM) consists of 4 main components, each of which is qualitatively different in terms of:
- Capacity
- Coding
25
The central executive (CE) acts as a what to determine which information received by the sense organs is what?
The central executive (CE) acts as a filter to determine which information received by the sense organs:
1. Is
2. Isn't
attended to
26
The central executive (CE) acts as a filter to determine which information received by the sense organs is and isn't attended to.
The central executive (CE) does what to information in all what, does what to tasks and collects what?
The central executive (CE):
1. Processes information in all sensory forms
2. Allocates the slave systems to tasks
3. Collects responses
27
The central executive (CE) acts as a filter to determine which information received by the sense organs is and isn't attended to.
The central executive (CE) processes information in all sensory forms, allocates the slave systems to tasks and collects responses.
The central executive (CE) is what in capacity?
The central executive (CE) is limited in capacity
28
The central executive (CE) acts as a filter to determine which information received by the sense organs is and isn't attended to.
The central executive (CE) processes information in all sensory forms, allocates the slave systems to tasks and collects responses.
The central executive (CE) is limited in capacity and can only what at a time?
The central executive (CE):
1. Is limited in capacity
2. Can only effectively cope with one strand of information at a time
29
The central executive (CE) acts as a filter to determine which information received by the sense organs is and isn't attended to.
The central executive (CE) processes information in all sensory forms, allocates the slave systems to tasks and collects responses.
The central executive (CE) is limited in capacity and can only effectively cope with one strand of information at a time.
It therefore what?
It therefore selectively attends to particular types of information
30
The central executive (CE) acts as a filter to determine which information received by the sense organs is and isn't attended to.
The central executive (CE) processes information in all sensory forms, allocates the slave systems to tasks and collects responses.
The central executive (CE) is limited in capacity and can only effectively cope with one strand of information at a time.
It therefore selectively attends to particular types of information, attaining what when attention needs to be what?
It therefore selectively attends to particular types of information, attaining a balance between tasks when attention needs to be divided between them
31
The central executive (CE) acts as a filter to determine which information received by the sense organs is and isn't attended to.
The central executive (CE) processes information in all sensory forms, allocates the slave systems to tasks and collects responses.
The central executive (CE) is limited in capacity and can only effectively cope with one strand of information at a time.
It therefore selectively attends to particular types of information, attaining a balance between tasks when attention needs to be divided between them.
Example
For example, talking while driving
32
The central executive (CE) acts as a filter to determine which information received by the sense organs is and isn't attended to.
The central executive (CE) processes information in all sensory forms, allocates the slave systems to tasks and collects responses.
The central executive (CE) is limited in capacity and can only effectively cope with one strand of information at a time.
It therefore selectively attends to particular types of information, attaining a balance between tasks when attention needs to be divided between them.
The central executive (CE) also permits us to do what?
The central executive (CE) also permits us to switch attention between different inputs of information
33
Research:
| Who (what year) discovered participants found it difficult to do what while simultaneously doing what?
Baddeley (1996) discovered participants found it difficult to generate lists of random numbers while simultaneously switching between pressing:
1. Numbers
2. Letters
on a keyboard
34
Research:
Baddeley (1996) discovered participants found it difficult to generate lists of random numbers while simultaneously switching between pressing numbers and letters on a keyboard, suggesting that the 2 tasks were what?
Baddeley (1996) discovered participants found it difficult to generate lists of random numbers while simultaneously switching between pressing:
1. Numbers
2. Letters
on a keyboard, suggesting that the 2 tasks were competing for CE resources
35
Research:
Baddeley (1996) discovered participants found it difficult to generate lists of random numbers while simultaneously switching between pressing numbers and letters on a keyboard, suggesting that the 2 tasks were competing for CE resources.
This supports the idea of the CE what?
This supports the idea of the CE:
1. Being limited in capacity
2. Only being able to cope with one type of information at a time
36
Research:
| Who (what year) used fMRI scans?
D'Esposito et al. (1995) used fMRI scans
37
Research:
| D'Esposito et al. (1995) used fMRI (what) scans?
D'Esposito et al. (1995) used fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) scans
38
Research:
| D'Esposito et al. (1995) used fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) scans to find what?
D'Esposito et al. (1995) used fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) scans to find that the prefrontal cortex was activated when:
1. Verbal
2. Spatial
tasks were performed simultaneously
39
Research:
D'Esposito et al. (1995) used fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) scans to find that the prefrontal cortex was activated when verbal and spatial tasks were performed simultaneously, but not when?
D'Esposito et al. (1995) used fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) scans to find that the prefrontal cortex was activated:
1. When verbal and spatial tasks were performed simultaneously
,but
2. Not when performed separately
40
Research:
D'Esposito et al. (1995) used fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) scans to find that the prefrontal cortex was activated when verbal and spatial tasks were performed simultaneously, but not when performed separately, suggesting what?
D'Esposito et al. (1995) used fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) scans to find that the prefrontal cortex was activated:
1. When verbal and spatial tasks were performed simultaneously
,but
2. Not when performed separately
,suggesting the prefrontal cortex to be associated with the workings of the CE
41
Evaluation:
| Little is known about what?
Little is known about the central executive
42
Evaluation:
Little is known about the central executive.
It isn't clear what?
It isn't clear:
1. How it works
Or,
2. What it does
43
Evaluation:
Little is known about the central executive.
It isn't clear how it works or what it does.
This what means that it can be used to explain what?
This vagueness means that it can be used to explain almost any experimental results
44
Evaluation:
Little is known about the central executive.
It isn't clear how it works or what it does.
This vagueness means that it can be used to explain almost any experimental results.
If 2 tasks cannot be performed together, then what?
If 2 tasks cannot be performed together, then:
1. The 2 processing components are seen as conflicting
Or,
2. It is argued that the tasks exceed the central executive's capacity
45
Evaluation:
Little is known about the central executive.
It isn't clear how it works or what it does.
This vagueness means that it can be used to explain almost any experimental results.
If 2 tasks cannot be performed together, then the 2 processing components are seen as conflicting or it is argued that the tasks exceed the central executive's capacity.
If 2 tasks can be done simultaneously, it's argued that what?
If 2 tasks can be done simultaneously, it's argued that they don't exceed the available resources
46
Evaluation:
Little is known about the central executive.
It isn't clear how it works or what it does.
This vagueness means that it can be used to explain almost any experimental results.
If 2 tasks cannot be performed together, then the 2 processing components are seen as conflicting or it is argued that the tasks exceed the central executive's capacity.
If 2 tasks can be done simultaneously, it's argued that they don't exceed the available resources.
The argument is what?
The argument is circular
47
Evaluation:
Little is known about the central executive.
It isn't clear how it works or what it does.
This vagueness means that it can be used to explain almost any experimental results.
If 2 tasks cannot be performed together, then the 2 processing components are seen as conflicting or it is argued that the tasks exceed the central executive's capacity.
If 2 tasks can be done simultaneously, it's argued that they don't exceed the available resources.
The argument is circular - an argument that does what?
The argument is circular - an argument that continually proves itself
48
Evaluation:
| The CE is probably better understood as a what?
The CE is probably better understood as a component controlling the focus of attention
49
Evaluation:
| The CE is probably better understood as a component controlling the focus of attention rather than being a what?
The CE is probably better understood as a component controlling the focus of attention rather than being a memory store
50
Evaluation:
The CE is probably better understood as a component controlling the focus of attention rather than being a memory store, unlike the what?
The CE is probably better understood as a component controlling the focus of attention rather than being a memory store, unlike the:
1. Phonological loop (PL)
2. Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS)
51
Evaluation:
The CE is probably better understood as a component controlling the focus of attention rather than being a memory store, unlike the phonological loop (PL) and the visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS), which are what?
The CE is probably better understood as a component controlling the focus of attention rather than being a memory store, unlike the:
1. Phonological loop (PL)
2. Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS)
,which are specialised memory stores
52
The 3-store STM stemmed from research using what?
The 3-store STM stemmed from research using:
1. A 'dual-task technique'
Or,
2. 'Interference tasks'
53
The 3-store STM stemmed from research using a 'dual-task technique' or 'interference tasks,' whereby what is measured as participants do what?
The 3-store STM stemmed from research using:
1. A 'dual-task technique'
Or,
2. 'Interference tasks'
,whereby performance is measured as participants perform 2 tasks simultaneously
54
The 3-store STM stemmed from research using a 'dual-task technique' or 'interference tasks,' whereby performance is measured as participants perform 2 tasks simultaneously.
The following observations provided evidence to suggest what?
The following observations provided evidence to suggest that different limited-capacity STM stores process different types of memory
55
The 3-store STM stemmed from research using a 'dual-task technique' or 'interference tasks,' whereby performance is measured as participants perform 2 tasks simultaneously.
The following observations provided evidence to suggest that different limited-capacity STM stores process different types of memory.
If one store is utilised for both tasks, then what?
If one store is utilised for both tasks, then task performance is poorer
56
The 3-store STM stemmed from research using a 'dual-task technique' or 'interference tasks,' whereby performance is measured as participants perform 2 tasks simultaneously.
The following observations provided evidence to suggest that different limited-capacity STM stores process different types of memory:
1. If one store is utilised for both tasks, then task performance is poorer than when what?
If one store is utilised for both tasks, then task performance is poorer than when the tasks are completed separately
57
The 3-store STM stemmed from research using a 'dual-task technique' or 'interference tasks,' whereby performance is measured as participants perform 2 tasks simultaneously.
The following observations provided evidence to suggest that different limited-capacity STM stores process different types of memory:
1. If one store is utilised for both tasks, then task performance is poorer than when the tasks are completed separately, due to what?
If one store is utilised for both tasks, then task performance is poorer than when the tasks are completed separately, due to the store's limited capacity
58
The 3-store STM stemmed from research using a 'dual-task technique' or 'interference tasks,' whereby performance is measured as participants perform 2 tasks simultaneously.
The following observations provided evidence to suggest that different limited-capacity STM stores process different types of memory:
1. If one store is utilised for both tasks, then task performance is poorer than when the tasks are completed separately, due to the store's limited capacity.
Example
For example:
1. Repeating 'the the the' aloud
2. Reading a text silently
would use the articulatory-phonological loop for both tasks, slowing performance
59
The 3-store STM stemmed from research using a 'dual-task technique' or 'interference tasks,' whereby performance is measured as participants perform 2 tasks simultaneously.
The following observations provided evidence to suggest that different limited-capacity STM stores process different types of memory:
1. If one store is utilised for both tasks, then task performance is poorer than when the tasks are completed separately, due to the store's limited capacity.
2. If the tasks require what?
If the tasks require different stores
60
The 3-store STM stemmed from research using a 'dual-task technique' or 'interference tasks,' whereby performance is measured as participants perform 2 tasks simultaneously.
The following observations provided evidence to suggest that different limited-capacity STM stores process different types of memory:
1. If one store is utilised for both tasks, then task performance is poorer than when the tasks are completed separately, due to the store's limited capacity.
2. If the tasks require different stores, performance would be what when performing the tasks simultaneously?
If the tasks require different stores, performance would be unaffected when performing the tasks simultaneously
61
The 3-store STM stemmed from research using a 'dual-task technique' or 'interference tasks,' whereby performance is measured as participants perform 2 tasks simultaneously.
The following observations provided evidence to suggest that different limited-capacity STM stores process different types of memory:
1. If one store is utilised for both tasks, then task performance is poorer than when the tasks are completed separately, due to the store's limited capacity.
2. If the tasks require different stores, performance would be unaffected when performing the tasks simultaneously.
Example
For example, repeating 'the the the' aloud whilst:
1. Performing a reasoning task
Or,
2. Following a mobile stimulus with your eyes
62
The 3-store STM stemmed from research using a 'dual-task technique' or 'interference tasks,' whereby performance is measured as participants perform 2 tasks simultaneously.
The following observations provided evidence to suggest that different limited-capacity STM stores process different types of memory:
1. If one store is utilised for both tasks, then task performance is poorer than when the tasks are completed separately, due to the store's limited capacity.
2. If the tasks require different stores, performance would be unaffected when performing the tasks simultaneously.
For example, repeating 'the the the' aloud whilst performing a reasoning task (requiring what and so using the what) or whilst following a mobile stimulus with your eyes?
For example, repeating 'the the the' aloud whilst:
1. Performing a reasoning task (requiring attention and so using the CE)
Or,
2. Following a mobile stimulus with your eyes
63
The 3-store STM stemmed from research using a 'dual-task technique' or 'interference tasks,' whereby performance is measured as participants perform 2 tasks simultaneously.
The following observations provided evidence to suggest that different limited-capacity STM stores process different types of memory:
1. If one store is utilised for both tasks, then task performance is poorer than when the tasks are completed separately, due to the store's limited capacity.
2. If the tasks require different stores, performance would be unaffected when performing the tasks simultaneously.
For example, repeating 'the the the' aloud whilst performing a reasoning task (requiring attention and so using the CE) or whilst following a mobile stimulus with your eyes (using what)?
For example, repeating 'the the the' aloud whilst:
1. Performing a reasoning task (requiring attention and so using the CE)
Or,
2. Following a mobile stimulus with your eyes (using the VSS)
64
Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
What were the 2 tasks?
The 2 tasks were a:
1. Digit span task
2. Verbal reasoning task
65
Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
The 2 tasks were a digit span task, which required them to do what, and a verbal reasoning task?
The 2 tasks were a:
1. Digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers
2. Verbal reasoning task
66
Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
The 2 tasks were a digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task, which required them to do what?
The 2 tasks were a:
1. Digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers
2. Verbal reasoning task, which required them to answer T or F in response to various questions
67
Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
The 2 tasks were a digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task, which required them to answer T or F in response to various questions (for example what)?
The 2 tasks were a:
1. Digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers
2. Verbal reasoning task, which required them to answer T or F in response to various questions (for example A is followed by B)
68
Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
The 2 tasks were a digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task, which required them to answer T or F in response to various questions (for example A is followed by B).
The results of this experiment were that as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to do what?
The results of this experiment were that as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning task questions
69
Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
The 2 tasks were a digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task, which required them to answer T or F in response to various questions (for example A is followed by B).
The results of this experiment were that as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning task questions, but what?
The results of this experiment were that as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning task questions, but not much longer
70
Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
The 2 tasks were a digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task, which required them to answer T or F in response to various questions (for example A is followed by B).
The results of this experiment were that as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning task questions, but not much longer - only how long?
The results of this experiment were that as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning task questions, but not much longer - only fractions of a second
71
Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
The 2 tasks were a digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task, which required them to answer T or F in response to various questions (for example A is followed by B).
The results of this experiment were that as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning task questions, but not much longer - only fractions of a second.
As well as this, participants didn't do what in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased?
As well as this, participants didn't make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased
72
Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
The 2 tasks were a digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task, which required them to answer T or F in response to various questions (for example A is followed by B).
The results of this experiment were that as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning task questions, but not much longer - only fractions of a second.
As well as this, participants didn't make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased.
If digit span is really a measure of STM capacity, then participants would be expected to show what on what tasks?
If digit span is really a measure of STM capacity, then participants would be expected to show impaired performance on the verbal reasoning tasks
73
Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
The 2 tasks were a digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task, which required them to answer T or F in response to various questions (for example A is followed by B).
The results of this experiment were that as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning task questions, but not much longer - only fractions of a second.
As well as this, participants didn't make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased.
If digit span is really a measure of STM capacity, then participants would be expected to show impaired performance on the verbal reasoning tasks, because what?
If digit span is really a measure of STM capacity, then participants would be expected to show impaired performance on the verbal reasoning tasks, because their STM would be fully occupied
74
Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
The 2 tasks were a digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task, which required them to answer T or F in response to various questions (for example A is followed by B).
The results of this experiment were that as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning task questions, but not much longer - only fractions of a second.
As well as this, participants didn't make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased.
If digit span is really a measure of STM capacity, then participants would be expected to show impaired performance on the verbal reasoning tasks, because their STM would be fully occupied.
However, Baddeley and Hitch found that participants made few errors where?
Baddeley and Hitch found that participants made few errors in either tasks
75
Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
The 2 tasks were a digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task, which required them to answer T or F in response to various questions (for example A is followed by B).
The results of this experiment were that as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning task questions, but not much longer - only fractions of a second.
As well as this, participants didn't make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased.
If digit span is really a measure of STM capacity, then participants would be expected to show impaired performance on the verbal reasoning tasks, because their STM would be fully occupied.
However, Baddeley and Hitch found that participants made few errors in either tasks.
Baddeley and Hitch concluded that STM must be made up of what?
Baddeley and Hitch concluded that STM must be made up of separate components
76
Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
The 2 tasks were a digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task, which required them to answer T or F in response to various questions (for example A is followed by B).
The results of this experiment were that as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning task questions, but not much longer - only fractions of a second.
As well as this, participants didn't make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased.
If digit span is really a measure of STM capacity, then participants would be expected to show impaired performance on the verbal reasoning tasks, because their STM would be fully occupied.
However, Baddeley and Hitch found that participants made few errors in either tasks.
Baddeley and Hitch concluded that STM must be made up of separate components, all of which are involved in what?
Baddeley and Hitch concluded that STM must be made up of separate components, all of which are involved in processes other than simple storage
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Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
The 2 tasks were a digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task, which required them to answer T or F in response to various questions (for example A is followed by B).
The results of this experiment were that as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning task questions, but not much longer - only fractions of a second.
As well as this, participants didn't make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased.
If digit span is really a measure of STM capacity, then participants would be expected to show impaired performance on the verbal reasoning tasks, because their STM would be fully occupied.
However, Baddeley and Hitch found that participants made few errors in either tasks.
Baddeley and Hitch concluded that STM must be made up of separate components, all of which are involved in processes other than simple storage.
The digit span tasks made use of the what?
The digit span tasks made use of the phonological loop
78
Research:
For the WMM:
Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform 2 tasks simultaneously (dual-task technique).
The 2 tasks were a digit span task, which required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task, which required them to answer T or F in response to various questions (for example A is followed by B).
The results of this experiment were that as the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning task questions, but not much longer - only fractions of a second.
As well as this, participants didn't make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased.
If digit span is really a measure of STM capacity, then participants would be expected to show impaired performance on the verbal reasoning tasks, because their STM would be fully occupied.
However, Baddeley and Hitch found that participants made few errors in either tasks.
Baddeley and Hitch concluded that STM must be made up of separate components, all of which are involved in processes other than simple storage.
The digit span tasks made use of the phonological loop and the verbal reasoning tasks made use of the what?
The:
1. Digit span tasks made use of the phonological loop
2. Verbal reasoning tasks made use of the CE
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The central executive (CE) has overall control of what?
The central executive (CE) has overall control of working memory
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Baddeley and Hitch state that people can perform 2 tasks at the same time, as long as the tasks use what?
Baddeley and Hitch state that people can perform 2 tasks at the same time, as long as the tasks use different components of the WMM
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Baddeley and Hitch state that people can perform 2 tasks at the same time, as long as the tasks use different components of the WMM.
However, if they are using the same parts of the same component, what will slow down?
If they are using the same parts of the same component, processing will slow down
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Evaluation:
| What psychologists suggest that the CE component of the WMM is what?
Cognitive psychologists suggest that the CE component of the WMM is unsatisfactory
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Evaluation:
| Cognitive psychologists suggest that the CE component of the WMM is unsatisfactory and doesn't really what?
Cognitive psychologists suggest that the CE component of the WMM:
1. Is unsatisfactory
2. Doesn't really explain anything
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Evaluation:
Cognitive psychologists suggest that the CE component of the WMM is unsatisfactory and doesn't really explain anything.
Baddeley himself did what?
Baddeley himself recognised this
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Evaluation:
Cognitive psychologists suggest that the CE component of the WMM is unsatisfactory and doesn't really explain anything.
Baddeley himself recognised this when he said what? (what year)
Baddeley himself recognised this when he said that, 'The central executive is the most important, but the least understood component of working memory' (2003)
86
Evaluation:
Cognitive psychologists suggest that the CE component of the WMM is unsatisfactory and doesn't really explain anything.
Baddeley himself recognised this when he said that, 'The central executive is the most important, but the least understood component of working memory' (2003).
The central executive needs to be more clearly specified than just being simply what?
The central executive needs to be more clearly specified than just being simply 'attention'
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Evaluation:
Cognitive psychologists suggest that the CE component of the WMM is unsatisfactory and doesn't really explain anything.
Baddeley himself recognised this when he said that, 'The central executive is the most important, but the least understood component of working memory' (2003).
The central executive needs to be more clearly specified than just being simply 'attention.'
Example
For example, some psychologists believe that the central executive (CE) may consist of separate components
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Evaluation:
Cognitive psychologists suggest that the CE component of the WMM is unsatisfactory and doesn't really explain anything.
Baddeley himself recognised this when he said that, 'The central executive is the most important, but the least understood component of working memory' (2003).
The central executive needs to be more clearly specified than just being simply 'attention.'
For example, some psychologists believe that the central executive (CE) may consist of separate components.
What does this mean?
This means that the WMM hasn't been fully explained
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There is a very good reason why it is against the law to use your mobile phone and drive at the same time.
Carrying out 2 tasks that use the same components of working memory can lead to what?
```
Carrying out 2 tasks that use the same components of working memory can lead to poor performance on:
1. One
Or,
2. Both
of them
```
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Evaluation:
Most people can successfully perform dual-tasks.
The MSM model cannot explain this, but what?
The MSM model cannot explain this, but the WMM can
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Evaluation:
| Support for the WMM comes from whose (what year) case study of patient KF?
Support for the WMM comes from Shallice and Warrington's (1970) case study of patient KF
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Evaluation:
| Support for the WMM comes from Shallice and Warrington's (1970) case study of patient KF, who had suffered what?
Support for the WMM comes from Shallice and Warrington's (1970) case study of patient KF, who had suffered brain damage
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Evaluation:
Support for the WMM comes from Shallice and Warrington's (1970) case study of patient KF, who had suffered brain damage.
After this damage happened, KF had what?
After this damage happened, KF had poor STM ability for verbal information
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Evaluation:
Support for the WMM comes from Shallice and Warrington's (1970) case study of patient KF, who had suffered brain damage.
After this damage happened, KF had poor STM ability for verbal information, but could do what?
After this damage happened, KF had poor STM ability for verbal information, but could process visual information normally presented visually
95
Evaluation:
Support for the WMM comes from Shallice and Warrington's (1970) case study of patient KF, who had suffered brain damage.
After this damage happened, KF had poor STM ability for verbal information, but could process visual information normally presented visually.
KF had difficulty with what, but could recall what?
KF had difficulty with sounds, but could recall:
1. Letters
2. Digits
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Evaluation:
Support for the WMM comes from Shallice and Warrington's (1970) case study of patient KF, who had suffered brain damage.
After this damage happened, KF had poor STM ability for verbal information, but could process visual information normally presented visually.
KF had difficulty with sounds, but could recall letters and digits.
What does this suggest?
This suggests that just his phonological loop had been damaged
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Evaluation:
Support for the WMM comes from Shallice and Warrington's (1970) case study of patient KF, who had suffered brain damage.
After this damage happened, KF had poor STM ability for verbal information, but could process visual information normally presented visually.
KF had difficulty with sounds, but could recall letters and digits.
This suggests that just his phonological loop had been damaged, leaving what?
This suggests that just his phonological loop had been damaged, leaving other areas of memory intact
98
Evaluation:
Support for the WMM comes from Shallice and Warrington's (1970) case study of patient KF, who had suffered brain damage.
After this damage happened, KF had poor STM ability for verbal information, but could process visual information normally presented visually.
KF had difficulty with sounds, but could recall letters and digits.
This suggests that just his phonological loop had been damaged, leaving other areas of memory intact.
This supports the existence of a separate what store?
This supports the existence of a separate:
1. Visual
2. Acoustic
store
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Evaluation:
Support for the WMM comes from Shallice and Warrington's (1970) case study of patient KF, who had suffered brain damage.
After this damage happened, KF had poor STM ability for verbal information, but could process visual information normally presented visually.
KF had difficulty with sounds, but could recall letters and digits.
This suggests that just his phonological loop had been damaged, leaving other areas of memory intact.
This supports the existence of a separate visual and acoustic store.
However, evidence from brain-damaged patients may not be what?
Evidence from brain-damaged patients may not be reliable
100
Evaluation:
Support for the WMM comes from Shallice and Warrington's (1970) case study of patient KF, who had suffered brain damage.
After this damage happened, KF had poor STM ability for verbal information, but could process visual information normally presented visually.
KF had difficulty with sounds, but could recall letters and digits.
This suggests that just his phonological loop had been damaged, leaving other areas of memory intact.
This supports the existence of a separate visual and acoustic store.
However, evidence from brain-damaged patients may not be reliable, because it concerns what?
Evidence from brain-damaged patients may not be reliable, because it concerns unique cases with patients who have had traumatic experiences
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Who (what year) gave their participants tasks that involved the central executive?
Braver et al. (1997) gave their participants tasks that involved the central executive
102
Braver et al. (1997) gave their participants tasks that involved the central executive, while they were what?
Braver et al. (1997) gave their participants tasks that involved the central executive, while they were having a brain scan
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Braver et al. (1997) gave their participants tasks that involved the central executive, while they were having a brain scan.
The researchers found what?
The researchers found greater activity in an area known as the left prefrontal cortex
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Braver et al. (1997) gave their participants tasks that involved the central executive, while they were having a brain scan.
The researchers found greater activity in an area known as the left prefrontal cortex.
What was especially interesting was that the activity in this area (the left prefrontal cortex) did what as the task became harder?
What was especially interesting was that the activity in this area (the left prefrontal cortex) increased as the task became harder
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Braver et al. (1997) gave their participants tasks that involved the central executive, while they were having a brain scan.
The researchers found greater activity in an area known as the left prefrontal cortex.
What was especially interesting was that the activity in this area (the left prefrontal cortex) increased as the task became harder.
This makes a lot of sense in terms of what?
This makes a lot of sense in terms of the WMM
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Braver et al. (1997) gave their participants tasks that involved the central executive, while they were having a brain scan.
The researchers found greater activity in an area known as the left prefrontal cortex.
What was especially interesting was that the activity in this area (the left prefrontal cortex) increased as the task became harder.
This makes a lot of sense in terms of the WMM, because what?
This makes a lot of sense in terms of the WMM, because as demands on the CE increase, it has to work harder to fulfil its function
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Against the WMM:
| Despite providing more detail of STM than the MSM, the WMM has been criticised for being what?
Despite providing more detail of STM than the MSM, the WMM has been criticised for being:
1. Too simplistic
2. Vague
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Against the WMM:
Despite providing more detail of STM than the MSM, the WMM has been criticised for being too simplistic and vague.
Example
For example, it is unclear:
1. What the CE is
Or,
2. Its exact role in attention
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Against the WMM:
Despite providing more detail of STM than the MSM, the WMM has been criticised for being too simplistic and vague.
For example, it is unclear what the CE is or its exact role in attention.
What will results from laboratory experiments researching the WMM often have?
Results from laboratory experiments researching the WMM will often have low ecological validity
110
Against the WMM:
Despite providing more detail of STM than the MSM, the WMM has been criticised for being too simplistic and vague.
For example, it is unclear what the CE is or its exact role in attention.
Results from laboratory experiments researching the WMM will often have low ecological validity (they may not do what)
Results from laboratory experiments researching the WMM will often have low ecological validity (they may not relate to real life)
111
Against the WMM:
Despite providing more detail of STM than the MSM, the WMM has been criticised for being too simplistic and vague.
For example, it is unclear what the CE is or its exact role in attention.
Results from laboratory experiments researching the WMM will often have low ecological validity (they may not relate to real life), because tasks such as what are arguably not representative of our everyday activities?
Results from laboratory experiments researching the WMM will often have low ecological validity (they may not relate to real life), because tasks such as repeating 'the the the' are arguably not representative of our everyday activities
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Evaluation:
| A strength of the WMM is that there are many what applications for it?
A strength of the WMM is that there are many practical applications for it
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Evaluation:
A strength of the WMM is that there are many practical applications for it.
Example
For example:
1. The phonological loop plays a key role in the development of reading
2. Working memory capacity might be used as a measure of suitability for certain jobs
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Evaluation:
| A strength of the WMM is that there is research support for it, such as what?
A strength of the WMM is that there is research support for it, such as physiological evidence from brain scans
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Evaluation:
| A weakness of the WMM is that the model doesn't account for what memory?
A weakness of the WMM is that the model doesn't account for musical memory
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Evaluation:
| A weakness of the WMM is that the model doesn't account for musical memory, why?
A weakness of the WMM is that the model doesn't account for musical memory, because people can listen to instrumental music without impairing performance on other acoustic tasks
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Evaluation:
A weakness of the WMM is that the model doesn't account for musical memory, because people can listen to instrumental music without impairing performance on other acoustic tasks.
Example
For example, Clive Wearing can do this
