4.3: Explaining phobias

Question 1

Two-process model

Answer 1

The two-process model is the perception of phobias as acquired through classical conditioning, with their maintenance upheld through operant conditioning

Question 2

According to behaviourists, phobias are what?

Answer 2

According to behaviourists, phobias are learned

Question 3

According to behaviourists, phobias are learned.

Who (what year) developed the two-process model?

Answer 3

Mowrer (1960) developed the two-process model

Question 4

According to behaviourists, phobias are learned.
Mowrer (1960) developed the two-process model.
What does the two-process model explain?

Answer 4

The two-process model explains how phobias are learned in 2 stages:

1. They are initially caused by classical conditioning
2. Then they are maintained over time by operant conditioning

Question 5

According to behaviourists, phobias are learned.
Mowrer (1960) developed the two-process model.
The two-process model explains how phobias are learned in 2 stages - They are initially caused by classical conditioning and then they are maintained over time by operant conditioning.
In classical conditioning, what becomes associated with a response?

Answer 5

In classical conditioning, a stimulus becomes associated with a response

Question 6

According to behaviourists, phobias are learned.
Mowrer (1960) developed the two-process model.
The two-process model explains how phobias are learned in 2 stages - They are initially caused by classical conditioning and then they are maintained over time by operant conditioning.
In classical conditioning, a stimulus becomes associated with a response, while operant conditioning involves learning behaviour due to what?

Answer 6

1. In classical conditioning, a stimulus becomes associated with a response
   ,while
2. Operant conditioning involves learning behaviour due to the consequences of that behaviour

Question 7

According to behaviourists, phobias are learned.
Mowrer (1960) developed the two-process model.
The two-process model explains how phobias are learned in 2 stages - They are initially caused by classical conditioning and then they are maintained over time by operant conditioning.
In classical conditioning, a stimulus becomes associated with a response, while operant conditioning involves learning behaviour due to the consequences of that behaviour.
There is also a what theory?

Answer 7

There is also an alternative behavioural theory, the social learning theory

Question 8

According to behaviourists, phobias are learned.
Mowrer (1960) developed the two-process model.
The two-process model explains how phobias are learned in 2 stages - They are initially caused by classical conditioning and then they are maintained over time by operant conditioning.
In classical conditioning, a stimulus becomes associated with a response, while operant conditioning involves learning behaviour due to the consequences of that behaviour.
There is also an alternative behavioural theory, the social learning theory.
The social learning theory is where learning occurs how?

Answer 8

The social learning theory is where learning occurs vicariously by:
1. Observation
2. Imitation
of another

Question 9

The social learning theory is where learning occurs vicariously by observation and imitation of another.
What might observing others, for example a parent, with a fear of spiders lead to?

Answer 9

Observing others, for example a parent, with a fear of spiders might lead to us modelling the behaviour

Question 10

The social learning theory is where learning occurs vicariously by observation and imitation of another.
Observing others, for example a parent, with a fear of spiders might lead to us modelling the behaviour, resulting in what?

Answer 10

Observing others, for example a parent, with a fear of spiders might lead to us modelling the behaviour, resulting in us sharing this fear

Question 11

The social learning theory is where learning occurs vicariously by observation and imitation of another.
Observing others, for example a parent, with a fear of spiders might lead to us modelling the behaviour, resulting in us sharing this fear.
Who (what year) is the social learning theory supported by?

Answer 11

The social learning theory is supported by Bandura and Rosenthal (1966)

Question 12

The social learning theory is where learning occurs vicariously by observation and imitation of another.
Observing others, for example a parent, with a fear of spiders might lead to us modelling the behaviour, resulting in us sharing this fear.
The social learning theory is supported by Bandura and Rosenthal (1966).
What did a model do?

Answer 12

A model acting in pain every time a buzzer sounded

Question 13

The social learning theory is where learning occurs vicariously by observation and imitation of another.
Observing others, for example a parent, with a fear of spiders might lead to us modelling the behaviour, resulting in us sharing this fear.
The social learning theory is supported by Bandura and Rosenthal (1966).
A model acting in pain every time a buzzer sounded.
Later on, what did participants who had witnessed this do?

Answer 13

Later on, participants who had witnessed this showed a similar acquired fear response

Question 14

According to behaviourists, phobias are learned.
Mowrer (1960) developed the two-process model.
The two-process model explains how phobias are learned in 2 stages - They are initially caused by classical conditioning and then they are maintained over time by operant conditioning.
In classical conditioning, a stimulus becomes associated with a response, while operant conditioning involves learning behaviour due to the consequences of that behaviour.
There is also an alternative behavioural theory, the social learning theory.
The social learning theory is where learning occurs vicariously by observation and imitation of another.
What behaviour is classical conditioning associated with?

Answer 14

Classical conditioning is associated with behaviour that isn’t under conscious control

Question 15

According to behaviourists, phobias are learned.
Mowrer (1960) developed the two-process model.
The two-process model explains how phobias are learned in 2 stages - They are initially caused by classical conditioning and then they are maintained over time by operant conditioning.
In classical conditioning, a stimulus becomes associated with a response, while operant conditioning involves learning behaviour due to the consequences of that behaviour.
There is also an alternative behavioural theory, the social learning theory.
The social learning theory is where learning occurs vicariously by observation and imitation of another.
Classical conditioning is associated with behaviour that isn’t under conscious control, whereas what?

Answer 15

Classical conditioning is associated with behaviour that isn’t under conscious control, whereas:
1. Operant conditioning
2. The social learning theory
are associated with voluntary behaviour

Question 16

Bitten by a dog can lead to a phobia of dogs through what?

Answer 16

Bitten by a dog can lead to a phobia of dogs through classical conditioning

Question 17

Classical conditioning:

Classical conditioning is learning through what?

Answer 17

Classical conditioning is learning through association

Question 18

Classical conditioning:
Classical conditioning is learning through association.
What does it involve?

Answer 18

It involves pairing:
1. A response naturally caused by one stimulus
with
2. Another, previously neutral, stimulus

Question 19

Classical conditioning:
Classical conditioning is learning through association.
It involves pairing a response naturally caused by one stimulus with another, previously neutral, stimulus.
When are phobias caused?

Answer 19

Phobias are caused when:
1. A neutral stimulus (one that does not provoke fear)
becomes associated with
2. A frightening unconditioned stimulus (one that provokes a reflex, unconditioned fear response, UCR)

Question 20

Classical conditioning:
Classical conditioning is learning through association.
It involves pairing a response naturally caused by one stimulus with another, previously neutral, stimulus.
Phobias are caused when a neutral stimulus (one that does not provoke fear) becomes associated with a frightening unconditioned stimulus (one that provokes a reflex, unconditioned fear response, UCR).
What does the neutral stimulus become?

Answer 20

The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, CS

Question 21

Classical conditioning:
Classical conditioning is learning through association.
It involves pairing a response naturally caused by one stimulus with another, previously neutral, stimulus.
Phobias are caused when a neutral stimulus (one that does not provoke fear) becomes associated with a frightening unconditioned stimulus (one that provokes a reflex, unconditioned fear response, UCR).
The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, CS, and what does the fear of it become?

Answer 21

The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, CS, and the fear of it becomes a conditioned response, CR

Question 22

Classical conditioning:

UCS (A shot) —> UCR (What)?

Answer 22

UCS (A shot) —> UCR (Fear)

Question 23

Classical conditioning:
UCS (A shot) —> UCR (Fear)
UCS (A short) + NS (What)? —> UCR (Fear)

Answer 23

UCS (A short) + NS (Noise) —> UCR (Fear)

Question 24

Classical conditioning:
UCS (A shot) —> UCR (Fear)
UCS (A short) + NS (Noise) —> UCR (Fear)
CS (What) —> CR (What) after repeated exposure?

Answer 24

CS (Noise) —> CR (Fear) after repeated exposure

Question 25

Classical conditioning:

UCS (A loud noise) —> UCR (What)?

Answer 25

UCS (A loud noise) —> UCR (Fear)

Question 26

Classical conditioning:
UCS (A loud noise) —> UCR (Fear)
UCS (A loud noise) + NS (What)? —> UCR (Fear)

Answer 26

UCS (A loud noise) + NS (A rat) —> UCR (Fear)

Question 27

Classical conditioning:
UCS (A loud noise) —> UCR (Fear)
UCS (A loud noise) + NS (A rat) —> UCR (Fear)
CS (What) —> CR (What) after repeated exposure?

Answer 27

CS (A rat) —> CR (Fear) after repeated exposure

Question 28

Classical conditioning:

Classical conditioning is based upon the work of who (what year)?

Answer 28

Classical conditioning is based upon the work of Ivan Pavlov (1903)

Question 29

Classical conditioning:

Classical conditioning is based upon the work of Ivan Pavlov (1903), who explained what?

Answer 29

Classical conditioning is based upon the work of Ivan Pavlov (1903), who explained how dogs learned to salivate:
1. In anticipation of being fed
,rather than
2. When actually being fed

Question 30

Classical conditioning:
Classical conditioning is based upon the work of Ivan Pavlov (1903), who explained how dogs learned to salivate in anticipation of being fed, rather than when actually being fed.
The process by which Pavlov explained this as occurring can also be used to explain the acquisition of phobias, where a natural response that causes fear becomes associated with a neutral stimulus, so that the neutral stimulus by itself causes a fear response.
Example

Answer 30

For example, a single pairing of the neutral stimulus of night-time with a frightening experience that produces a natural fear response, such as being mugged, leads to a phobia of the dark

Question 31

Operant conditioning:

Responses learned via classical conditioning tend to face over time (a process called what)?

Answer 31

Responses learned via classical conditioning tend to face over time (a process called extinction)

Question 32

Operant conditioning:
Responses learned via classical conditioning tend to face over time (a process called extinction), yet what is one feature of phobias?

Answer 32

Responses learned via classical conditioning tend to face over time (a process called extinction), yet one feature of phobias is their persistence over time

Question 33

Operant conditioning:
Responses learned via classical conditioning tend to face over time (a process called extinction), yet one feature of phobias is their persistence over time.
What did Mowrer propose?

Answer 33

Mowrer proposed that this can be explained by operant conditioning

Question 34

Operant conditioning:
Responses learned via classical conditioning tend to face over time (a process called extinction), yet one feature of phobias is their persistence over time.
Mowrer proposed that this can be explained by operant conditioning.
What is negatively reinforced?

Answer 34

Avoidance of the phobic stimulus is negatively reinforced

Question 35

Operant conditioning:
Responses learned via classical conditioning tend to face over time (a process called extinction), yet one feature of phobias is their persistence over time.
Mowrer proposed that this can be explained by operant conditioning.
Avoidance of the phobic stimulus is negatively reinforced.
Example

Answer 35

For example, the dog phobic goes out of their way to avoid situations where they might encounter a dog

Question 36

Operant conditioning:
Responses learned via classical conditioning tend to face over time (a process called extinction), yet one feature of phobias is their persistence over time.
Mowrer proposed that this can be explained by operant conditioning.
Avoidance of the phobic stimulus is negatively reinforced.
For example, the dog phobic goes out of their way to avoid situations where they might encounter a dog.
Why is this negative reinforcement?

Answer 36

This is negative reinforcement, because the unpleasant consequence (fear) is successfully avoided by behaving in this way

Question 37

Operant conditioning:
Responses learned via classical conditioning tend to face over time (a process called extinction), yet one feature of phobias is their persistence over time.
Mowrer proposed that this can be explained by operant conditioning.
Avoidance of the phobic stimulus is negatively reinforced.
For example, the dog phobic goes out of their way to avoid situations where they might encounter a dog.
This is negative reinforcement, because the unpleasant consequence (fear) is successfully avoided by behaving in this way.
What does this do?

Answer 37

This:
1. Strengthens
2. Maintains
the avoidance behaviour

Question 38

Operant conditioning:
Responses learned via classical conditioning tend to face over time (a process called extinction), yet one feature of phobias is their persistence over time.
Mowrer proposed that this can be explained by operant conditioning.
Avoidance of the phobic stimulus is negatively reinforced.
For example, the dog phobic goes out of their way to avoid situations where they might encounter a dog.
This is negative reinforcement, because the unpleasant consequence (fear) is successfully avoided by behaving in this way.
Why does this strengthen and maintain the avoidance behaviour?

Answer 38

This:
1. Strengthens
2. Maintains
the avoidance behaviour, because it is successful at avoiding and reducing fear and anxiety, so it will be repeated

Question 39

Operant conditioning:
Responses learned via classical conditioning tend to face over time (a process called extinction), yet one feature of phobias is their persistence over time.
Mowrer proposed that this can be explained by operant conditioning.
Avoidance of the phobic stimulus is negatively reinforced.
For example, the dog phobic goes out of their way to avoid situations where they might encounter a dog.
This is negative reinforcement, because the unpleasant consequence (fear) is successfully avoided by behaving in this way.
This strengthens and maintains the avoidance behaviour, because it is successful at avoiding and reducing fear and anxiety, so it will be repeated.
Why does this maintain the phobia?

Answer 39

This maintains the phobia, because the person is avoiding situations in which they might encounter dogs without a frightening experience, which would tend to extinguish the phobia

Question 40

Operant conditioning:

What does operant conditioning involve learning through?

Answer 40

Operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences (outcomes) of behaviour

Question 41

Operant conditioning:
Operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences (outcomes) of behaviour.
What does a behaviour that is rewarding do?

Answer 41

A behaviour that is rewarding reinforces the chances of the behaviour being repeated in future similar circumstances

Question 42

Operant conditioning:
Operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences (outcomes) of behaviour.
A behaviour that is rewarding reinforces the chances of the behaviour being repeated in future similar circumstances.
An outcome of a behaviour that is pleasant is known as a positive reinforcement, while an outcome of a behaviour that results in escaping something unpleasant is known as a negative reinforcement.
For example, if a person has a phobia of the dark, because they had a traumatic experience, like being mugged at night-time, then the person might sleep how?

Answer 42

For example, if a person has a phobia of the dark, because they had a traumatic experience, like being mugged at night-time, then the person might sleep with the lights on

Question 43

Operant conditioning:
Operant conditioning involves learning through the consequences (outcomes) of behaviour.
A behaviour that is rewarding reinforces the chances of the behaviour being repeated in future similar circumstances.
An outcome of a behaviour that is pleasant is known as a positive reinforcement, while an outcome of a behaviour that results in escaping something unpleasant is known as a negative reinforcement.
For example, if a person has a phobia of the dark, because they had a traumatic experience, like being mugged at night-time, then the person might sleep with the lights on, which is negatively reinforcing, as it reduces the fear response associated with being in the dark.
This reinforces the behaviour and it increases the chances of the person sleeping with the lights on again, because anxiety is not experienced.
Why do phobias therefore become very resistant to extinction (dying out)?

Answer 43

Phobias therefore become very resistant to extinction (dying out), because of the sufferer constantly making reinforcing avoidance responses

Question 44

Research:

Bagby (1922) reported on a case study of a woman who had a phobia of running water that originated from her feet getting stuck in some rocks near a waterfall.
As time went by, she became increasingly panic-stricken.
Although she was eventually de-conditioned, the neutral stimulus of the sound of the running water became associated with the fear she had felt and thus her phobia of running water was acquired.

King et al. (1998) reported that case studies showed that children tended to acquire strong phobias through a traumatic experience, which further supports the idea of phobias being acquired through classical conditioning.

Di Gallo (1996) reported that around 20% of people experiencing traumatic car accidents developed a phobia of travelling in cars, especially of travelling at speed, which can be explained by classical conditioning, whereby the neutral stimulus of a car became associated with the naturally occurring fear response to the crash.
They then tended to make avoidance responses involving staying at home rather than making car journeys to see friends, which can be explained by operant conditioning, whereby the avoidance response of staying at home was negatively reinforcing and was thus repeated, making the phobia resistant to extinction.

Mowrer (1960) found that by making a few presentations of an electric shock to rats immediately following the sound of a buzzer, he could produce a fear response just by sounding the buzzer.
The rats had acquired a phobia of the buzzer through classical conditioning.
Then through operant conditioning, he trained the rats to escape the electric shocks by making the avoidance response of jumping over a barrier when the buzzer sounded.
As this was negatively reinforcing, the rats repeated the behaviour every time the buzzer sounded, maintaining their fear of the sound of the buzzer.

Answer 44

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Question 45

What % of people involved in serious traffic accidents will develop a phobia of travelling in cars?

Answer 45

20% of people involved in serious traffic accidents will develop a phobia of travelling in cars

Question 46

Evaluation:
For:
1. The effectiveness of behaviourist treatments, like systematic desensitisation, in addressing phobic symptoms, lends support to behaviourist explanations of phobias.

2. A strength of behaviourist explanations is that they can be combined with biological ones to give a better understanding of phobias.
   For example, the idea of genetic vulnerability shows how some individuals are more susceptible to developing phobias through environmental experiences.
3. There is supporting evidence for the role of classical conditioning in developing phobias.
   Watson and Rayner (1920) conducted an experiment on an 11 month old boy known as little Albert, a calm child with no fears at the start of the study.
   They attempted to condition a phobia of rats by presenting Albert with a rat.
   When he reached for it, they struck a steel bar behind his head to make a loud noise.
   They repeated this 3 times and did the same a week later.
   After this, when they showed the rat to Albert, he began to cry.
   They had conditioned a fear response in him using classical conditioning, showing that classical conditioning can successfully explain phobias.
4. Other studies have found mixed evidence, overall, for the importance of classical conditioning.
   For example, DiNardo et al. (1988) found that 60% of dog phobics could recall a frightening experience with a dog, supporting the behavioural approach.
   However, in a control group of participants without a phobia of dogs, the same percentage reported a frightening experience of dogs.
   This suggests that some people develop phobias without a frightening association and also that a frightening association does not cause a phobia in everyone.
   Such individual differences pose a problem for behaviourism, since the two-process model is unable to explain them.
   It may be that other factors are involved, for example a genetic vulnerability to developing a phobia.
5. Despite criticisms, a major strength of the behavioural approach to phobias is that it has resulted in effective treatments for phobias.
   These treatments work on the basis that, if phobias are learned via conditioning, they can be unlearned in the same way.
   This useful practical application is an advantage for the theory.

Against:
1. Rachman (1984) put forward the safety signals hypothesis to explain that avoidance responses made to reduce the chances of exposure to phobic objects/situations are not motivated by a reduction in anxiety as stated by the two-process model, but by positive feelings associated with safe places.
He used the example of agoraphobics who will leave their home in the presence of certain people, or travel to work using particular roads, because these people and roads are ones that are trusted and thus represent safety signals.

2. Bounton (2007) argues that the two-process model neglects the influence of evolution history, whereby avoidance responses are learned more rapidly if the required response resembles an animal’s natural defensive behaviour.
3. The behaviourist viewpoint is weakened by the fact that not everyone experiencing traumatic events, like car accidents, goes on to develop a phobia.
   People with phobias often recall a specific incident that triggers it.
   For example, being bitten by a dog (Sue et al, 1994).
   However, not all phobics remember such an event.
   Was there one?
   If not, why did they get a phobia?
   Furthermore, some people who are bitten by dogs do not get phobias (DiNardo et al, 1998).
   This second point can be explained by the ‘diathesis-stress model.’
4. The behaviourist approach is also unable to explain why some phobias are more common than others.
   In particular, phobias of spiders, snakes and heights are common, yet frightening experiences with these are uncommon, compared to frightening encounters with threats, such as traffic, knives or electricity (for which phobias are rare).
5. The two-process model also fails to take into account cognitive factors.
   For example, irrational beliefs may cause a phobia without the need for a frightening encounter.
   Equally, biological factors are ignored.
   There is some evidence that phobias can run in families, suggesting that genetic vulnerability might play a role.
   Therefore, it is likely that phobias are caused by a more complex range of factors than the two-process model suggests.
6. Bouton (2007) argues that evolutionary factors also play a part in phobias.
   This is supported by Seligman (1970) who proposed an alternative explanation, preparedness.
   We have evolved to be afraid.
   The flight response aids survival, but this is only relevant to things present in our evolutionary past, for example snakes and spiders.
   Seligman believed that evolutionary factors are also important - We are genetically ‘primed’ to quickly learn to fear objects and situations that were life-threatening to our distance ancestors.
   Modern day threats haven’t had time for us to evolve this response, hence phobias of cars, planes or guns, for example, are rare.
   This suggests that there is more to explaining phobias than simple classical conditioning.
   Ohman et al’s (1975) study supports preparedness.
   Ohman et al. presented participants with various stimuli.
   These stimuli were either ‘fear relevant’ (for example, snakes and spiders) or ‘fear irrelevant’ (for example, flowers).
   They paired these with a brief, uncomfortable electric shock and found that fewer electric shocks were needed to condition the fear of ‘fear relevant’ stimuli than ‘fear irrelevant’ stimuli.
   Ohman also suggests that ‘fear relevant’ phobias may be harder to treat.

Answer 46

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