2.5: Misleading information

Question 1

Several factors have been identified as affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT).
Example

Answer 1

For example, misleading information

Question 2

Several factors have been identified as affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony (EWT).
For example, misleading information, in the form of what?

Answer 2

For example, misleading information, in the form of:

1. Leading questions
2. Post-event discussion

Question 3

Misleading information

Answer 3

Misleading information is information that suggests a desired response

Question 4

Post-event discussion

Answer 4

Post-event discussion is misleading information being added to a memory after the event has occurred

Question 5

Leading questions

Answer 5

Leading questions are questions:

1. Phrased in such a way to prompt a particular kind of answer
2. That increase the likelihood that an individual’s schemas will influence them to give a desired answer

Question 6

A leading question is a question phrased in such a way to prompt a particular kind of answer.
Example

Answer 6

For example:

1. ‘You like Psychology don’t you?’
2. ‘Did you see the gun?’

Question 7

A leading question is a question phrased in such a way to prompt a particular kind of answer.
For example, ‘You like Psychology don’t you?’ and ‘Did you see the gun?’ compared to what?

Answer 7

For example, ‘You like Psychology don’t you?’ and ‘Did you see the gun?’ compared to the general questions of:

1. ‘What are your thoughts on Psychology?’
2. ‘Did you see a gun?’

Question 8

Research regularly shows that EWT is affected by experiences occurring when?

Answer 8

Research regularly shows that EWT is affected by experiences occurring after a witnessed event

Question 9

Research regularly shows that EWT is affected by experiences occurring after a witnessed event.
A key factor is the use of misleading information, particularly in the form of leading questions, and post-event discussion.
Example

Answer 9

For example, most people will have seen TV dramas set in courtrooms where barristers are accused of ‘leading the witness’

Question 10

Research regularly shows that EWT is affected by experiences occurring after a witnessed event.
A key factor is the use of misleading information, particularly in the form of leading questions, and post-event discussion.
For example, most people will have seen TV dramas set in courtrooms where barristers are accused of ‘leading the witness’ by doing what?

Answer 10

For example, most people will have seen TV dramas set in courtrooms where barristers are accused of ‘leading the witness’ by asking questions that suggest a certain answer

Question 11

Research regularly shows that EWT is affected by experiences occurring after a witnessed event.
A key factor is the use of misleading information, particularly in the form of leading questions, and post-event discussion.
For example, most people will have seen TV dramas set in courtrooms where barristers are accused of ‘leading the witness’ by asking questions that suggest a certain answer.
Misleading information has been found to be more able to create memories the more what it is?

Answer 11

Misleading information has been found to be more able to create memories the more:
1. Believable
2. Emotionally arousing
3. Subtle
it is

Question 12

Research regularly shows that EWT is affected by experiences occurring after a witnessed event.
A key factor is the use of misleading information, particularly in the form of leading questions, and post-event discussion.
For example, most people will have seen TV dramas set in courtrooms where barristers are accused of ‘leading the witness’ by asking questions that suggest a certain answer.
Misleading information has been found to be more able to create memories the more believable, emotionally arousing and subtle it is.
Post-event discussion concerns misleading information being added to a memory after the event has occurred, with research indicating that what can be stimulated?

Answer 12

Post-event discussion concerns misleading information being added to a memory after the event has occurred, with research indicating that false memories can be stimulated

Question 13

Research regularly shows that EWT is affected by experiences occurring after a witnessed event.
A key factor is the use of misleading information, particularly in the form of leading questions, and post-event discussion.
For example, most people will have seen TV dramas set in courtrooms where barristers are accused of ‘leading the witness’ by asking questions that suggest a certain answer.
Misleading information has been found to be more able to create memories the more believable, emotionally arousing and subtle it is.
Post-event discussion concerns misleading information being added to a memory after the event has occurred, with research indicating that false memories can be stimulated by what experiences?

Answer 13

Post-event discussion concerns misleading information being added to a memory after the event has occurred, with research indicating that false memories can be stimulated by misleading post-event experiences

Question 14

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because they do what?

Answer 14

This is because the witnesses combine:
1. (Mis)information from other witnesses
with
2. Their own memories

Question 15

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because the witnesses combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Research has demonstrated how this happens:
Who (what year) studied participants in pairs?

Answer 15

Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs

Question 16

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because the witnesses combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Research has demonstrated how this happens:
Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs.
The method and procedure was that each participant watched what?

Answer 16

The method and procedure was that each participant watched a video of the same crime

Question 17

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because the witnesses combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Research has demonstrated how this happens:
Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs.
The method and procedure was that each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from what?

Answer 17

The method and procedure was that each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view

Question 18

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because the witnesses combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Research has demonstrated how this happens:
Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs.
The method and procedure was that each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view.
What did this mean?

Answer 18

This meant that each participant could see elements of the event that the other could not

Question 19

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because the witnesses combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Research has demonstrated how this happens:
Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs.
The method and procedure was that each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view.
This meant that each participant could see elements of the event that the other could not.
Example

Answer 19

For example, only one of the participants could see the title of a book being carried by a young woman

Question 20

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because the witnesses combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Research has demonstrated how this happens:
Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs.
The method and procedure was that each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view.
This meant that each participant could see elements of the event that the other could not.
For example, only one of the participants could see the title of a book being carried by a young woman.
What did both participants then do?

Answer 20

Both participants then discussed what they had seen

Question 21

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because the witnesses combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Research has demonstrated how this happens:
Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs.
The method and procedure was that each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view.
This meant that each participant could see elements of the event that the other could not.
For example, only one of the participants could see the title of a book being carried by a young woman.
Both participants then discussed what they had seen before doing what?

Answer 21

Both participants then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall

Question 22

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because the witnesses combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Research has demonstrated how this happens:
Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs.
The method and procedure was that each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view.
This meant that each participant could see elements of the event that the other could not.
For example, only one of the participants could see the title of a book being carried by a young woman.
Both participants then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall.
The findings of this study are that the researchers found that what % of the participants mistakenly recalled what?

Answer 22

The findings of this study are that the researchers found that 71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not see in the video

Question 23

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because the witnesses combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Research has demonstrated how this happens:
Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs.
The method and procedure was that each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view.
This meant that each participant could see elements of the event that the other could not.
For example, only one of the participants could see the title of a book being carried by a young woman.
Both participants then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall.
The findings of this study are that the researchers found that 71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not see in the video, but had picked up where?

Answer 23

The findings of this study were that the researchers found that 71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they:
1. Did not see in the video
,but
2. Had picked up in the discussion

Question 24

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because the witnesses combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Research has demonstrated how this happens:
Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs.
The method and procedure was that each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view.
This meant that each participant could see elements of the event that the other could not.
For example, only one of the participants could see the title of a book being carried by a young woman.
Both participants then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall.
The findings of this study are that the researchers found that 71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not see in the video, but had picked up in the discussion.
The what figure in a control group?

Answer 24

The corresponding figure in a control group

Question 25

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because the witnesses combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Research has demonstrated how this happens:
Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs.
The method and procedure was that each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view.
This meant that each participant could see elements of the event that the other could not.
For example, only one of the participants could see the title of a book being carried by a young woman.
Both participants then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall.
The findings of this study are that the researchers found that 71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not see in the video, but had picked up in the discussion.
The corresponding figure in a control group, where there was no what, was what %?

Answer 25

The corresponding figure in a control group, where there was no discussion, was 0%

Question 26

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because the witnesses combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Research has demonstrated how this happens:
Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs.
The method and procedure was that each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view.
This meant that each participant could see elements of the event that the other could not.
For example, only one of the participants could see the title of a book being carried by a young woman.
Both participants then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall.
The findings of this study are that the researchers found that 71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not see in the video, but had picked up in the discussion.
The corresponding figure in a control group, where there was no discussion, was 0%.
The conclusions of this study are that Gabbert et al. concluded that witnesses often do what?

Answer 26

The conclusions of this study are that Gabbert et al. concluded that witnesses often go along with each other

Question 27

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because the witnesses combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Research has demonstrated how this happens:
Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs.
The method and procedure was that each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view.
This meant that each participant could see elements of the event that the other could not.
For example, only one of the participants could see the title of a book being carried by a young woman.
Both participants then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall.
The findings of this study are that the researchers found that 71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not see in the video, but had picked up in the discussion.
The corresponding figure in a control group, where there was no discussion, was 0%.
The conclusions of this study are that Gabbert et al. concluded that witnesses often go along with each other, either to do what or because they believe what?

Answer 27

The conclusions of this study are that Gabbert et al. concluded that witnesses often go along with each other, either:
1. To win social approval
Or,
2. Because they believe that the other witnesses are right and that they are wrong

Question 28

When witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other (post-event discussion), their eyewitness testimonies may become contaminated.
This is because the witnesses combine (mis)information from other witnesses with their own memories.
Research has demonstrated how this happens:
Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs.
The method and procedure was that each participant watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view.
This meant that each participant could see elements of the event that the other could not.
For example, only one of the participants could see the title of a book being carried by a young woman.
Both participants then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall.
The findings of this study are that the researchers found that 71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not see in the video, but had picked up in the discussion.
The corresponding figure in a control group, where there was no discussion, was 0%.
The conclusions of this study are that Gabbert et al. concluded that witnesses often go along with each other, either to win social approval or because they believe that the other witnesses are right and that they are wrong.
Gabbert et al. called this phenomenon what?

Answer 28

Gabbert et al. called this phenomenon memory conformity

Question 29

Evaluation:

What is a great strength of all research into misleading information?

Answer 29

A great strength of all research into misleading information is that is has useful real-life applications

Question 30

Evaluation:
A great strength of all research into misleading information is that is has useful real-life applications, because it has hugely important what?

Answer 30

A great strength of all research into misleading information is that is has useful real-life applications, because it has hugely important practical uses in the real world

Question 31

Evaluation:
A great strength of all research into misleading information is that is has useful real-life applications, because it has hugely important practical uses in the real world, where what can be very serious indeed?

Answer 31

A great strength of all research into misleading information is that is has useful real-life applications, because it has hugely important practical uses in the real world, where the consequences of inaccurate eyewitness testimony can be very serious indeed

Question 32

Evaluation:
A great strength of all research into misleading information is that is has useful real-life applications, because it has hugely important practical uses in the real world, where the consequences of inaccurate eyewitness testimony can be very serious indeed.
Example

Answer 32

For example, Loftus (1975) believes that leading questions can have such a distorting effect on memory that police officers need to be very careful about how they phrase their questions when interviewing eyewitnesses

Question 33

Evaluation:
A great strength of all research into misleading information is that is has useful real-life applications, because it has hugely important practical uses in the real world, where the consequences of inaccurate eyewitness testimony can be very serious indeed.
Research into eyewitness testimony is one area in which psychologists believe that they can do what?

Answer 33

Research into eyewitness testimony is one area in which psychologists believe that they can make an important positive difference to the lives of real people

Question 34

Evaluation:
A great strength of all research into misleading information is that is has useful real-life applications, because it has hugely important practical uses in the real world, where the consequences of inaccurate eyewitness testimony can be very serious indeed.
Research into eyewitness testimony is one area in which psychologists believe that they can make an important positive difference to the lives of real people, for instance by doing what?

Answer 34

Research into eyewitness testimony is one area in which psychologists believe that they can make an important positive difference to the lives of real people, for instance by:

1. Improving the way the legal system works
2. Appearing in court trials as expert witnesses

Question 35

Evaluation:

There is evidence that older people are what than younger people when giving eyewitness reports?

Answer 35

There is evidence that older people are less accurate than younger people when giving eyewitness reports

Question 36

Evaluation:
There is evidence that older people are less accurate than younger people when giving eyewitness reports.
Example

Answer 36

For example, Anastasi and Rhodes (2006) found that people in age groups:
1. 18 - 25
2. 35 - 45
were more accurate than people in the age group 55 - 78 years

Question 37

Evaluation:
There is evidence that older people are less accurate than younger people when giving eyewitness reports.
For example, Anastasi and Rhodes (2006) found that people in age groups 18 - 25 and 35 - 45 were more accurate than people in the age group 55 - 78 years.
However, all age groups were more accurate when identifying what?

Answer 37

All age groups were more accurate when identifying people of their own age group

Question 38

Evaluation:
There is evidence that older people are less accurate than younger people when giving eyewitness reports.
For example, Anastasi and Rhodes (2006) found that people in age groups 18 - 25 and 35 - 45 were more accurate than people in the age group 55 - 78 years.
However, all age groups were more accurate when identifying people of their own age group.
What is this called?

Answer 38

This is called own age bias

Question 39

Evaluation:
There is evidence that older people are less accurate than younger people when giving eyewitness reports.
Research studies often use what as the target to identify?

Answer 39

Research studies often use younger people as the target to identify

Question 40

Evaluation:
There is evidence that older people are less accurate than younger people when giving eyewitness reports.
Research studies often use younger people as the target to identify and this may mean that some age groups appear what?

Answer 40

Research studies often use younger people as the target to identify and this may mean that some age groups appear less accurate

Question 41

Evaluation:
There is evidence that older people are less accurate than younger people when giving eyewitness reports.
Research studies often use younger people as the target to identify and this may mean that some age groups appear less accurate, but in fact this is what?

Answer 41

Research studies often use younger people as the target to identify and this may mean that some age groups appear less accurate, but in fact this is not true

Question 42

Who (what year) found that the effects of post-event discussion can be reduced?

Answer 42

Bodner et al. (2008) found that the effects of post-event discussion can be reduced

Question 43

Bodner et al. (2008) found that the effects of post-event discussion can be reduced, if participants are what?

Answer 43

Bodner et al. (2008) found that the effects of post-event discussion can be reduced, if participants are warned of the effects

Question 44

Bodner et al. (2008) found that the effects of post-event discussion can be reduced, if participants are warned of the effects.
Recall was more accurate for those participants who were warned that what?

Answer 44

Recall was more accurate for those participants who were warned that:

1. Anything that they hear from a co-witness is second-hand information (or ‘hearsay’)
2. They should forget it and recall only their own memory of the event

Question 45

Evaluation:

Who (what year) argue that many answers participants give in what are the result of demand characteristics?

Answer 45

Zaragosa and McCloskey (1989) argue that many answers participants give in laboratory studies of eyewitness testimony are the result of demand characteristics

Question 46

Evaluation:
Zaragosa and McCloskey (1989) argue that many answers participants give in laboratory studies of eyewitness testimony are the result of demand characteristics.
Participants usually do not want to do what and want to appear what?

Answer 46

Participants usually:

1. Do not want to let the researcher down
2. Want to appear helpful and attentive

Question 47

Evaluation:
Zaragosa and McCloskey (1989) argue that many answers participants give in laboratory studies of eyewitness testimony are the result of demand characteristics.
Participants usually do not want to let the researcher down and want to appear helpful and attentive.
So when they are asked a question that they don’t know the answer to, they guess, especially if it’s a what question?

Answer 47

So when they are asked a question that they don’t know the answer to, they guess, especially if it’s a yes/no question

Question 48

Evaluation:
Zaragosa and McCloskey (1989) argue that many answers participants give in laboratory studies of eyewitness testimony are the result of demand characteristics.
Participants usually do not want to let the researcher down and want to appear helpful and attentive.
So when they are asked a question that they don’t know the answer to, they guess, especially if it’s a yes/no question.
For example, you are a participant in a study and have seen what?

Answer 48

For example, you:

1. Are a participant in a study
2. Have seen a film clip of a street robbery

Question 49

Evaluation:
Zaragosa and McCloskey (1989) argue that many answers participants give in laboratory studies of eyewitness testimony are the result of demand characteristics.
Participants usually do not want to let the researcher down and want to appear helpful and attentive.
So when they are asked a question that they don’t know the answer to, they guess, especially if it’s a yes/no question.
For example, you are a participant in a study and have seen a film clip of a street robbery.
Now you are answering some yes/no questions and one of them is ‘Did you see the blue car?’
There was no blue car in the clip, but you still answer ‘yes’ to the question, because it seems like what?

Answer 49

There was no blue car in the clip, but you still answer ‘yes’ to the question, because it seems like a more helpful answer

Question 50

Evaluation:

Who (what year) point out that what you remember as an eyewitness can have what in the real world?

Answer 50

Foster et al. (1994) point out that what you remember as an eyewitness can have some very important consequences in the real world

Question 51

Evaluation:
Foster et al. (1994) point out that what you remember as an eyewitness can have some very important consequences in the real world, but the same is not true where?

Answer 51

Foster et al. (1994) point out that what you remember as an eyewitness can have some very important consequences in the real world, but the same is not true in research studies

Question 52

Evaluation:
Foster et al. (1994) point out that what you remember as an eyewitness can have some very important consequences in the real world, but the same is not true in research studies.
They showed that eyewitness testimony was more accurate for what?

Answer 52

They showed that eyewitness testimony was more accurate for real-life crimes

Question 53

Evaluation:
Foster et al. (1994) point out that what you remember as an eyewitness can have some very important consequences in the real world, but the same is not true in research studies.
They showed that eyewitness testimony was more accurate for real-life crimes as opposed to what?

Answer 53

They showed that eyewitness testimony was more accurate for real-life crimes as opposed to simulations

Question 54

Who (what year) found that what % of participants who watched a video of a car ride?

Answer 54

Loftus (1975) found that 17% of participants who watched a video of a car ride

Question 55

Loftus (1975) found that 17% of participants who watched a video of a car ride and were asked what?

Answer 55

Loftus (1975) found that 17% of participants who:

1. Watched a video of a car ride
2. Were asked ‘How fast was the car going when it passed the white barn?’

Question 56

Loftus (1975) found that 17% of participants who watched a video of a car ride and were asked ‘How fast was the car going when it passed the white barn?’ (when there was what)?

Answer 56

Loftus (1975) found that 17% of participants who watched a video of a car ride and were asked ‘How fast was the car going when it passed the white barn?’ (when there was no barn)

Question 57

Loftus (1975) found that 17% of participants who watched a video of a car ride and were asked ‘How fast was the car going when it passed the white barn?’ (when there was no barn) recalled what how long later?

Answer 57

Loftus (1975) found that 17% of participants who watched a video of a car ride and were asked ‘How fast was the car going when it passed the white barn?’ (when there was no barn) recalled seeing a barn a week later

Question 58

Loftus (1975) found that 17% of participants who watched a video of a car ride and were asked ‘How fast was the car going when it passed the white barn?’ (when there was no barn) recalled seeing a barn a week later.
This supports the idea that what can affect recall?

Answer 58

This supports the idea that post-event information added to a memory after the event has occurred can affect recall

Question 59

Evaluation:

Participants don’t expect to be what by researchers?

Answer 59

Participants don’t expect to be deliberately misled by researchers

Question 60

Evaluation:

Participants don’t expect to be deliberately misled by researchers, therefore what should perhaps be expected?

Answer 60

Participants don’t expect to be deliberately misled by researchers, therefore inaccurate recall should perhaps be expected

Question 61

Evaluation:
Participants don’t expect to be deliberately misled by researchers, therefore inaccurate recall should perhaps be expected, because participants believe what?

Answer 61

Participants don’t expect to be deliberately misled by researchers, therefore inaccurate recall should perhaps be expected, because participants believe that the researchers are telling the truth

Question 62

Evaluation:

Misleading information often affects only what?

Answer 62

Misleading information often affects only unimportant aspects of memory

Question 63

Evaluation:
Misleading information often affects only unimportant aspects of memory.
Memory for important events isn’t as easily what?

Answer 63

Memory for important events isn’t as easily distorted

Question 64

Evaluation:
Misleading information often affects only unimportant aspects of memory.
Memory for important events isn’t as easily distorted when the information is what?

Answer 64

Memory for important events isn’t as easily distorted when the information is obviously misleading

Question 65

Evaluation:
Misleading information often affects only unimportant aspects of memory.
Memory for important events isn’t as easily distorted when the information is obviously misleading.
What misleading information is much more influential?

Answer 65

1. Subtle
2. Plausible
   misleading information is much more influential

Question 66

Evaluation:

Studies of eyewitness testimony that use possibly distressing stimuli bring what?

Answer 66

Studies of eyewitness testimony that use possibly distressing stimuli bring ethical concerns

Question 67

Evaluation:

Studies of eyewitness testimony that use possibly distressing stimuli bring ethical concerns of what?

Answer 67

Studies of eyewitness testimony that use possibly distressing stimuli bring ethical concerns of psychological harm

Question 68

Evaluation:
Studies of eyewitness testimony that use possibly distressing stimuli bring ethical concerns of psychological harm.
For instance, care should be taken not to include participants who may have experienced what?

Answer 68

For instance, care should be taken not to include participants who may have experienced traumatic car accidents

Question 69

Evaluation:
Studies of eyewitness testimony that use possibly distressing stimuli bring ethical concerns of psychological harm.
For instance, care should be taken not to include participants who may have experienced traumatic car accidents.
Many studies of eyewitness testimony also involve what?

Answer 69

Many studies of eyewitness testimony also involve elements of deceit