4.4: Explaining depression

Question 1

According to SANE, what is estimated?

Answer 1

According to SANE, it is estimated that 5% of adults in Britain will suffer from depression

Question 2

How can individuals overcome mental disorders?

Answer 2

Individuals can overcome mental disorders by learning to use more appropriate cognitions

Question 3

Individuals can overcome mental disorders by learning to use more appropriate cognitions.
If people think in more positive ways, they can be helped to do what?

Answer 3

If people think in more positive ways, they can be helped to feel better

Question 4

How does the cognitive approach generally explain depression?

Answer 4

The cognitive approach generally explains depression in terms of:
1. Faulty
2. Irrational
thought processes and perceptions

Question 5

Beck’s negative triad

Answer 5

Beck’s negative triad is a model of the cognitive biases that are characteristic features of depression

Question 6

Beck’s negative triad is a model of the cognitive biases that are characteristic features of depression.
What does the triad consist of?

Answer 6

The triad consists of 3 elements, or pessimistic thought patterns, about:

1. The self
2. The world
3. The future

Question 7

Why does Beck (1987) believe people become depressed?

Answer 7

Beck (1987) believes people become depressed, because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas

Question 8

Beck (1987) believes people become depressed, because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas, which do what?

Answer 8

Beck (1987) believes people become depressed, because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas, which:

1. Dominate thinking
2. Are triggered whenever individuals are in situations that are similar to those in which negative schemas were learned

Question 9

Beck (1987) believes people become depressed, because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas, which dominate thinking and are triggered whenever individuals are in situations that are similar to those in which negative schemas were learned.
When did Beck perceive negative schemas as developing?

Answer 9

Beck perceived negative schemas as developing in:

1. Childhood
2. Adolescence

Question 10

Beck (1987) believes people become depressed, because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas, which dominate thinking and are triggered whenever individuals are in situations that are similar to those in which negative schemas were learned.
Beck perceived negative schemas as developing in childhood and adolescence, when?

Answer 10

Beck perceived negative schemas as developing in childhood and adolescence, when authority figures, such as parents:

1. Place unreal demands on individuals
2. Are highly critical of them

Question 11

Beck (1987) believes people become depressed, because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas, which dominate thinking and are triggered whenever individuals are in situations that are similar to those in which negative schemas were learned.
Beck perceived negative schemas as developing in childhood and adolescence, when authority figures, such as parents, place unreal demands on individuals and are highly critical of them.
What do these negative schemas then do?

Answer 11

These negative schemas then continue into adulthood

Question 12

Beck (1987) believes people become depressed, because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas, which dominate thinking and are triggered whenever individuals are in situations that are similar to those in which negative schemas were learned.
Beck perceived negative schemas as developing in childhood and adolescence, when authority figures, such as parents, place unreal demands on individuals and are highly critical of them.
These negative schemas then continue into adulthood, doing what?

Answer 12

These negative schemas then continue into adulthood, providing a negative framework to view life in a pessimistic fashion

Question 13

Beck (1987) believes people become depressed, because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas, which dominate thinking and are triggered whenever individuals are in situations that are similar to those in which negative schemas were learned.
Beck perceived negative schemas as developing in childhood and adolescence, when authority figures, such as parents, place unreal demands on individuals and are highly critical of them.
These negative schemas then continue into adulthood, providing a negative framework to view life in a pessimistic fashion.
These negative schemas fuel and are fuelled by cognitive biases, causing individuals to do what?

Answer 13

These negative schemas:
1. Fuel
2. Are fuelled by
cognitive biases, causing individuals to misperceive reality

Question 14

Beck’s negative triad is a model of the cognitive biases that are characteristic features of depression.
The triad consists of 3 elements, or pessimistic thought patterns, about the self, the world and the future.
An example of negative views about oneself

Answer 14

An example of negative views about oneself is ‘‘I am worthless’’

Question 15

Beck’s negative triad is a model of the cognitive biases that are characteristic features of depression.
The triad consists of 3 elements, or pessimistic thought patterns, about the self, the world and the future.
An example of negative views about the world

Answer 15

An example of negative views about the world is:
1. ‘‘Nobody likes me, because I am worthless’’
Or,
2. ‘‘Nothing good happens to me’’

Question 16

Beck’s negative triad is a model of the cognitive biases that are characteristic features of depression.
The triad consists of 3 elements, or pessimistic thought patterns, about the self, the world and the future.
An example of negative views about the future

Answer 16

An example of negative views about the future is:
1. ‘‘I’ll never be good at anything, because everyone hates me’’
Or,
2. ‘‘Nothing is ever going to get better’’

Question 17

Beck (1987) believes people become depressed, because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas, which dominate thinking and are triggered whenever individuals are in situations that are similar to those in which negative schemas were learned.
Beck perceived negative schemas as developing in childhood and adolescence, when authority figures, such as parents, place unreal demands on individuals and are highly critical of them.
These negative schemas then continue into adulthood, providing a negative framework to view life in a pessimistic fashion.
These negative schemas fuel and are fuelled by cognitive biases, causing individuals to misperceive reality.
What are the negative schemas?

Answer 17

The negative schemas are:

1. Ineptness schemas
2. Self-blame schemas
3. Negative self-evaluation schemas

Question 18

Beck (1987) believes people become depressed, because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas, which dominate thinking and are triggered whenever individuals are in situations that are similar to those in which negative schemas were learned.
Beck perceived negative schemas as developing in childhood and adolescence, when authority figures, such as parents, place unreal demands on individuals and are highly critical of them.
These negative schemas then continue into adulthood, providing a negative framework to view life in a pessimistic fashion.
These negative schemas fuel and are fuelled by cognitive biases, causing individuals to misperceive reality.
The negative schemas are ineptness schemas, self-blame schemas and negative self-evaluation schemas.
What do ineptness schemas do?

Answer 18

Ineptness schemas make depressives expect to fail

Question 19

Beck (1987) believes people become depressed, because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas, which dominate thinking and are triggered whenever individuals are in situations that are similar to those in which negative schemas were learned.
Beck perceived negative schemas as developing in childhood and adolescence, when authority figures, such as parents, place unreal demands on individuals and are highly critical of them.
These negative schemas then continue into adulthood, providing a negative framework to view life in a pessimistic fashion.
These negative schemas fuel and are fuelled by cognitive biases, causing individuals to misperceive reality.
The negative schemas are ineptness schemas, self-blame schemas and negative self-evaluation schemas.
What do self-blame schemas do?

Answer 19

Self-blame schemas makes depressives feel responsible for all misfortunes

Question 20

Beck (1987) believes people become depressed, because the world is seen negatively through negative schemas, which dominate thinking and are triggered whenever individuals are in situations that are similar to those in which negative schemas were learned.
Beck perceived negative schemas as developing in childhood and adolescence, when authority figures, such as parents, place unreal demands on individuals and are highly critical of them.
These negative schemas then continue into adulthood, providing a negative framework to view life in a pessimistic fashion.
These negative schemas fuel and are fuelled by cognitive biases, causing individuals to misperceive reality.
The negative schemas are ineptness schemas, self-blame schemas and negative self-evaluation schemas.
What do negative self-evaluation schemas do?

Answer 20

Negative self-evaluation schemas constantly remind depressives of their worthlessness

Question 21

Beck’s negative triad is a model of the cognitive biases that are characteristic features of depression.
The triad consists of 3 elements, or pessimistic thought patterns, about the self, the world and the future.
What are the cognitive biases?

Answer 21

The cognitive biases are:

1. Arbitrary inference
2. Selective abstraction
3. Overgeneralisation
4. Magnification and minimisation

Question 22

Beck’s negative triad is a model of the cognitive biases that are characteristic features of depression.
The triad consists of 3 elements, or pessimistic thought patterns, about the self, the world and the future.
The cognitive biases are arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralisation and magnification and minimisation.
1. Arbitrary inference:
What is arbitrary inference?

Answer 22

Arbitrary inference is conclusions drawn in the absence of sufficient evidence

Question 23

Beck’s negative triad is a model of the cognitive biases that are characteristic features of depression.
The triad consists of 3 elements, or pessimistic thought patterns, about the self, the world and the future.
The cognitive biases are arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralisation and magnification and minimisation.
1. Arbitrary inference:
Arbitrary inference is conclusions drawn in the absence of sufficient evidence.
Example

Answer 23

For example, a man concluding that he’s worthless, because it’s raining the day he is hosting an outdoor party

Question 24

Beck’s negative triad is a model of the cognitive biases that are characteristic features of depression.
The triad consists of 3 elements, or pessimistic thought patterns, about the self, the world and the future.
The cognitive biases are arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralisation and magnification and minimisation.
2. Selective abstraction:
What is selective abstraction?

Answer 24

Selective abstraction is conclusions drawn from just one part of a situation

Question 25

Beck’s negative triad is a model of the cognitive biases that are characteristic features of depression.
The triad consists of 3 elements, or pessimistic thought patterns, about the self, the world and the future.
The cognitive biases are arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralisation and magnification and minimisation.
2. Selective abstraction:
Selective abstraction is conclusions drawn from just one part of a situation.
Example

Answer 25

For example, a worker feeling worthless when a product doesn’t work, even though several people made it

Question 26

Beck’s negative triad is a model of the cognitive biases that are characteristic features of depression.
The triad consists of 3 elements, or pessimistic thought patterns, about the self, the world and the future.
The cognitive biases are arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralisation and magnification and minimisation.
3. Overgeneralisation:
What is overgeneralisation?

Answer 26

Overgeneralisation is sweeping conclusions drawn on the basis of a single event

Question 27

Beck’s negative triad is a model of the cognitive biases that are characteristic features of depression.
The triad consists of 3 elements, or pessimistic thought patterns, about the self, the world and the future.
The cognitive biases are arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralisation and magnification and minimisation.
3. Overgeneralisation:
Overgeneralisation is sweeping conclusions drawn on the basis of a single event.
Example

Answer 27

For example, a student regarding poor performance on one test as proof of his worthlessness

Question 28

Beck’s negative triad is a model of the cognitive biases that are characteristic features of depression.
The triad consists of 3 elements, or pessimistic thought patterns, about the self, the world and the future.
The cognitive biases are arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralisation and magnification and minimisation.
4. Magnification and minimisation:
What is magnification and minimisation?

Answer 28

Magnification and minimisation is exaggerations in evaluation of performance

Question 29

Beck’s negative triad is a model of the cognitive biases that are characteristic features of depression.
The triad consists of 3 elements, or pessimistic thought patterns, about the self, the world and the future.
The cognitive biases are arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, overgeneralisation and magnification and minimisation.
4. Magnification and minimisation:
Magnification and minimisation is exaggerations in evaluation of performance.
Example

Answer 29

For example:
1. A man believing he’s ruined his car due to a small scratch (maximisation)
Or,
2. A woman believing she is worthless despite many praises (minimisation)

Question 30

What do negative schemas, together with cognitive biases/distortions, do?

Answer 30

Negative schemas, together with cognitive biases/distortions, maintain the negative triad

Question 31

Negative schemas, together with cognitive biases/distortions, maintain the negative triad, which sees negative thoughts as being about what?

Answer 31

Negative schemas, together with cognitive biases/distortions, maintain the negative triad, which sees negative thoughts as being about:

1. The self
2. The world
3. The future

Question 32

Negative schemas, together with cognitive biases/distortions, maintain the negative triad, which sees negative thoughts as being about the self, the world and the future.
The self is where individuals see themselves as being what?

Answer 32

The self is where individuals see themselves as being:

1. Helpless
2. Worthless
3. Inadequate

Question 33

Negative schemas, together with cognitive biases/distortions, maintain the negative triad, which sees negative thoughts as being about the self, the world and the future.
The self is where individuals see themselves as being helpless, worthless and inadequate.
The world is where obstacles are perceived within one’s environment that cannot be dealt with.
Example

Answer 33

For example, ‘everything is beyond my control’

Question 34

Negative schemas, together with cognitive biases/distortions, maintain the negative triad, which sees negative thoughts as being about the self, the world and the future.
The self is where individuals see themselves as being helpless, worthless and inadequate.
The world is where obstacles are perceived within one’s environment that cannot be dealt with.
The future is where what is seen as blocking any improvements?

Answer 34

The future is where personal worthlessness is seen as blocking any improvements

Question 35

Negative schemas, together with cognitive biases/distortions, maintain the negative triad, which sees negative thoughts as being about the self, the world and the future.
The self is where individuals see themselves as being helpless, worthless and inadequate.
The world is where obstacles are perceived within one’s environment that cannot be dealt with.
The future is where personal worthlessness is seen as blocking any improvements.
Example

Answer 35

For example, ‘I will always be useless’

Question 36

Faulty information processing - Beck believed that people who are depressed make fundamental errors in what?

Answer 36

Faulty information processing - Beck believed that people who are depressed make fundamental errors in logic

Question 37

Research for Beck:

Negative schemas are supported by Weissman and Beck (1978).
Thought processes were measured using the dysfunctional attitude scale (DAS).
Participants were asked to fill in a questionnaire by ticking whether they agreed or disagreed with a set of statements.
They found that depressed participants made more negative assessments than non-depressed people.
When given some therapy to challenge and change their negative schemas, there was an improvement in their self-ratings.
Weissman and Beck concluded that depression involves the use of negative schemas.

Boury et al. (2001) monitored students’ negative thoughts with the Beck depression inventory (BDI), finding that depressives misinterpret facts and experiences in a negative fashion and feel hopeless about the future, giving support to Beck’s cognitive explanation..

Saisto et al. (2001) studied expectant mothers, finding that those who didn’t adjust personal goals to match specific demands of the transition to motherhood, but indulged instead in negative thinking patterns, had increased depressive symptoms, supporting Beck’s cognitive theory.

Koster et al. (2005) presented participants with either a positive, negative or neutral word on a screen, after which a square appeared and participants pressed a button to say which area of the screen the square appeared in.
Depressed participants took longer to disengage from the negative words than non-depressed participants, which suggests that the depressives were focusing more on the negative words in line with Beck’s theory.

McIntosh and Fischer (2000) tested the negative cognitive triad to see if it contains the 3 proposed distinct types of negative thought.
They found no clear separation of negative thoughts, but instead a single, one-dimensional negative perception of the self, suggesting retention of all 3 areas of the triad as separate dimensions is unnecessary for representing the structure of depressive cognition.

Answer 37

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Question 38

Ellis’ ABC model

Answer 38

Ellis’ ABC model is an explanation that sees depression occurring through:

1. An activating agent
2. A belief
3. A consequence

Question 39

What did Ellis believe?

Answer 39

Ellis believed that depressives mistakenly blame external events for their unhappiness

Question 40

Ellis believed that depressives mistakenly blame external events for their unhappiness.
He thought, however, that it is their what that is to blame for their distress?

Answer 40

He thought, however, that it is their interpretation of these events that is to blame for their distress

Question 41

Ellis believed that depressives mistakenly blame external events for their unhappiness.
He thought, however, that it is their interpretation of these events that is to blame for their distress.
To explain this process, what did Ellis develop?

Answer 41

To explain this process, Ellis developed what he referred to as the ABC model:

1. A = Activating event
2. B = Beliefs
3. C = Consequence

Question 42

Ellis believed that depressives mistakenly blame external events for their unhappiness.
He thought, however, that it is their interpretation of these events that is to blame for their distress.
To explain this process, Ellis developed what he referred to as the ABC model - A = Activating event, B = Beliefs and C = Consequence.
A - Activating event:
What is A - Activating event?

Answer 42

A - Activating event is that something happens in the environment around you.

Question 43

Ellis believed that depressives mistakenly blame external events for their unhappiness.
He thought, however, that it is their interpretation of these events that is to blame for their distress.
To explain this process, Ellis developed what he referred to as the ABC model - A = Activating event, B = Beliefs and C = Consequence.
A - Activating event:
A - Activating event is that something happens in the environment around you.
Example

Answer 43

For example, you fail a mock exam

Question 44

Ellis believed that depressives mistakenly blame external events for their unhappiness.
He thought, however, that it is their interpretation of these events that is to blame for their distress.
To explain this process, Ellis developed what he referred to as the ABC model - A = Activating event, B = Beliefs and C = Consequence.
A - Activating event:
A - Activating event is that something happens in the environment around you.
For example, you fail a mock exam.
B - Beliefs:
You hold a belief about the event.
Example

Answer 44

For example, you:

1. '’Can’t do exams’’
2. '’Are a failure’’

Question 45

Ellis believed that depressives mistakenly blame external events for their unhappiness.
He thought, however, that it is their interpretation of these events that is to blame for their distress.
To explain this process, Ellis developed what he referred to as the ABC model - A = Activating event, B = Beliefs and C = Consequence.
A - Activating event:
A - Activating event is that something happens in the environment around you.
For example, you fail a mock exam.
B - Beliefs:
You hold a belief about the event.
For example, you ‘‘can’t do exams’’ and ‘‘are a failure.’’
C - Consequence:
What is C - Consequence?

Answer 45

C - Consequence is that you have an emotional response to your belief

Question 46

Ellis believed that depressives mistakenly blame external events for their unhappiness.
He thought, however, that it is their interpretation of these events that is to blame for their distress.
To explain this process, Ellis developed what he referred to as the ABC model - A = Activating event, B = Beliefs and C = Consequence.
A - Activating event:
A - Activating event is that something happens in the environment around you.
For example, you fail a mock exam.
B - Beliefs:
You hold a belief about the event.
For example, you ‘‘can’t do exams’’ and ‘‘are a failure.’’
C - Consequence:
C - Consequence is that you have an emotional response to your belief.
Example

Answer 46

For example, you:
1. Leave college
Or,
2. Feel worthless

Question 47

Ellis believed that depressives mistakenly blame external events for their unhappiness.
He thought, however, that it is their interpretation of these events that is to blame for their distress.
To explain this process, Ellis developed what he referred to as the ABC model - A = Activating event, B = Beliefs and C = Consequence.
A - Activating event:
A - Activating event is that something happens in the environment around you.
For example, you fail a mock exam.
B - Beliefs:
You hold a belief about the event.
For example, you ‘‘can’t do exams’’ and ‘‘are a failure.’’
C - Consequence:
C - Consequence is that you have an emotional response to your belief.
For example, you leave college or feel worthless.
The activating event (A) triggers irrational beliefs that are seen to be true (B) and the consequence is that the individual becomes depressed (C), why?

Answer 47

The activating event (A) triggers irrational beliefs that are seen to be true (B) and the consequence is that the individual becomes depressed (C), because they have:

1. A negative view of themself
2. No confidence in their ability

Question 48

Ellis believed that depressives mistakenly blame external events for their unhappiness.
He thought, however, that it is their interpretation of these events that is to blame for their distress.
To explain this process, Ellis developed what he referred to as the ABC model - A = Activating event, B = Beliefs and C = Consequence.
A - Activating event:
A - Activating event is that something happens in the environment around you.
For example, you fail a mock exam.
B - Beliefs:
You hold a belief about the event.
For example, you ‘‘can’t do exams’’ and ‘‘are a failure.’’
C - Consequence:
C - Consequence is that you have an emotional response to your belief.
For example, you leave college or feel worthless.
The activating event (A) triggers irrational beliefs that are seen to be true (B) and the consequence is that the individual becomes depressed (C), because they have a negative view of themself and no confidence in their ability.
Non-depressed people may react completely differently to an activating event.
Example

Answer 48

For example, if they failed a mock exam:

1. They would believe that they did their best
2. The consequent emotion here might be that they’re motivated to do better next time

Question 49

Ellis believed that depressives mistakenly blame external events for their unhappiness.
He thought, however, that it is their interpretation of these events that is to blame for their distress.
To explain this process, Ellis developed what he referred to as the ABC model - A = Activating event, B = Beliefs and C = Consequence.
A - Activating event:
A - Activating event is that something happens in the environment around you.
For example, you fail a mock exam.
B - Beliefs:
You hold a belief about the event.
For example, you ‘‘can’t do exams’’ and ‘‘are a failure.’’
C - Consequence:
C - Consequence is that you have an emotional response to your belief.
For example, you leave college or feel worthless.
The activating event (A) triggers irrational beliefs that are seen to be true (B) and the consequence is that the individual becomes depressed (C), because they have a negative view of themself and no confidence in their ability.
Non-depressed people may react completely differently to an activating event.
For example, if they failed a mock exam, they would believe that they did their best and the consequent emotion here might be that they’re motivated to do better next time.
What is the difference between depressed and non-depressed people, therefore?

Answer 49

The difference between depressed and non-depressed people, therefore, is how they perceive themselves

Question 50

What was rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) formed from?

Answer 50

Rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) was formed from Ellis’ ABC model

Question 51

What did Ellis propose that good mental health is the result of?

Answer 51

Ellis proposed that good mental health is the result of rational thinking

Question 52

Evaluation of the cognitive approach:
For:
1. Beck’s theory has supporting evidence.
Much research has supported the proposal that depression is associated with faulty information processing, negative self-schemas and the triad of impairments.

2. Beck’s theory has practical application in CBT.
   Beck’s cognitive explanation forms the basis of CBT.
   All cognitive aspects of depression can be challenged in CBT.
3. Ellis’ theory has practical application in CBT.
   Like Beck’s explanation, Ellis’ explanation has led to successful therapy.
   Irrational negative beliefs are challenged and this can help to reduce depressive symptoms, suggesting that the irrational beliefs had some role in the depression.
4. There is lots of research evidence supporting the idea of cognitive vulnerability being linked to the onset of depression, with depressives selectively attending to negative stimuli.
5. The cognitive explanation of depression is based upon scientific principles that permit objective testing, allowing improvement of the model and thus greater understanding of the disorder.
6. A high degree of success has been achieved in treating depression with cognitive therapies in comparison to therapies based on other explanations, thus providing support for such explanations.
   Most evidence linking negative thinking to depression is correlational and doesn’t indicate negative thoughts causing depression.
   Beck came to believe it was a bi-directional relationship, where depressed individuals’ thoughts cause depression and vice versa.
7. A big strength of the theory is that it acknowledges that other aspects, such as genes, development and early experiences, can lead to certain thinking patterns that then lead to depression.
8. Evidence supports the role of negative and irrational thinking in disorders such as depression, as depressed participants typically think more negatively than non-depressed participants.
   Boury et al. (2001) used Beck’s depression inventory to monitor students’ negative thoughts.
   They found that depressives misinterpret facts and experiences (negatively) and they feel hopeless about the future, providing sport for Beck’s cognitive explanation.
9. The problem with the cognitive explanation of depression is with determining cause and effect - does negative thinking cause depression, or is it just a symptom of depression?
   However, this criticism is resolved by longitudinal research such as the Temple-Wisconsin study.
   This study measured students’ thinking styles every few months.
   They found that 17% of students who scored high on tests of negative thinking went on to become depressed, compared to only 1% of those with low scores.
   This suggests that negative thinking precedes the onset of depression, so many indeed play a casual role, as the cognitive approach claims.
10. The cognitive approach to explaining depression has led to useful practical application through its development of cognitive behavioural therapies for treating depression.
    These are typically very effective, which therefore supports the idea that cognition plays a key role in causing depression and confirms the usefulness of the approach.

Against:
1. Beck’s theory does not explain all aspects of depression.
The theory explains the basic symptoms of depression, however it is a complex disorder with a range of symptoms, not all of which can be explained.

2. Ellis’ theory only offers a partial explanation.
   Sometimes depression does occur as a result of an activating event (reactive depression).
   However, depression doesn’t always arise as a result of an obvious cause.
3. The cognitive approach does not explain all aspects of depression.
   It has had less success in explaining and treating the manic component of bipolar depression, lessening support for the model as a global explanation of depression.
   This explanation also does not explain why some individuals experience anger associated with their depression or why some patients suffer hallucinations and delusions.
4. Some critics believe that not all depressed people have a distorted view of their own abilities and that while they may focus on negative elements of events, they do actually understand such events accurately and therefore don’t show the negative biases that Beck believes they should.
5. Both Beck and Ellis’ models are criticised for blaming the patient for depression, since the focus is on the patient’s thinking patterns.
   This is important for practical reasons, because it may lead one to overlook other factors that are involved, such as situational (for example life events and family problems) or biological (for example post-natal depression).
   If these situational or biological problems were resolved, the depressive may not longer think negatively or feel hopeless.
   Furthermore, it is also important for ethical reasons - Conveying the impression that the depressed person is at fault risks feeding into their low self-esteem and making them feel even worse.
6. Both Beck and Ellis assume that irrational beliefs create depression, but some evidence suggests that people who are depressed are more accurate in their judgements than people who are not depressed (who see the world through ‘rose-tinted glasses’).
   Therefore, it is not necessarily correct to claim that depression comes from irrational, faulty thinking.

Answer 52

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Question 53

What are the alternative explanations of depression?

Answer 53

The alternative explanations of depression are the:

1. Genetic explanation
2. Behavioural explanation

Question 54

The alternative explanations of depression are the genetic explanation and the behavioural explanation.
The genetic explanation:
What idea does the genetic explanation centre on?

Answer 54

The genetic explanation centres on the idea that vulnerability to depression is inherited

Question 55

The alternative explanations of depression are the genetic explanation and the behavioural explanation.
The genetic explanation:
The genetic explanation centres on the idea that vulnerability to depression is inherited.
How is the genetic explanation generally researched?

Answer 55

The genetic explanation is generally researched through:
1. Twin
2. Adoption
studies

Question 56

The alternative explanations of depression are the genetic explanation and the behavioural explanation.
The genetic explanation:
The genetic explanation centres on the idea that vulnerability to depression is inherited.
The genetic explanation is generally researched through twin and adoption studies, though what have been used more recently?

Answer 56

The genetic explanation is generally researched through:
1. Twin
2. Adoption
studies, though gene-mapping studies have been used more recently

Question 57

The alternative explanations of depression are the genetic explanation and the behavioural explanation.
The genetic explanation:
The genetic explanation centres on the idea that vulnerability to depression is inherited.
The genetic explanation is generally researched through twin and adoption studies, though gene-mapping studies have been used more recently, that do what?

Answer 57

The genetic explanation is generally researched through twin and adoption studies, though gene-mapping studies have been used more recently, that compare genetic material from those with:
1. High
2. Low
incidences of depression

Question 58

The genetic explanation:
Research:
Wender et al. (1986) found that adopted children who develop depression were more likely to have a depressive biological parent, even though adopted children are raised in different environments, implying that biological factors are more important than cognitive ones.

Plomin et al. (2013) used gene-mapping techniques with a sample of about 3,000 pairs of 12 year old twins, to find that genetics accounted for about 66% of the heritability of cognitive abilities.
This suggests that the cognitive features of depression, such as negative schemas, may have a large genetic component to them.
This illustrates how the genetic and cognitive explanations can be combined together to give a better understanding of the origin of the disorder.

Answer 58

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Question 59

The genetic explanation:
Evaluation:
For:

Against:
1. The summary of symptoms across gender, age and cultural groups, plus the similarity in physical symptoms, suggests a genetic rather than a cognitive influence, although of course the cognitive features of depression may be genetically mediated.
This again suggests that the 2 explanations can be combined, rather than seen as separate.

2. If the genetic explanation was solely true, then concordance rates between MZ (identical) twins would be 100% and all depressives would share genetic material, which they don’t.
   Therefore, although research does indicate a genetic influence, other influences, such as cognitive factors, must also play a role.

Answer 59

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Question 60

The alternative explanations of depression are the genetic explanation and the behavioural explanation.
The behavioural explanation:
How does the behavioural explanation see depression?

Answer 60

The behavioural explanation sees depression as a learned condition

Question 61

The alternative explanations of depression are the genetic explanation and the behavioural explanation.
The behavioural explanation:
The behavioural explanation sees depression as a learned condition.
What did Lewinsohn (1974) propose?

Answer 61

Lewinsohn (1974) proposed that negative life events may:

1. Incur a decline in positive reinforcements
2. Even lead to learned helplessness

Question 62

The alternative explanations of depression are the genetic explanation and the behavioural explanation.
The behavioural explanation:
The behavioural explanation sees depression as a learned condition.
Lewinsohn (1974) proposed that negative life events may incur a decline in positive reinforcements and even lead to learned helplessness, where individuals do what?

Answer 62

Lewinsohn (1974) proposed that negative life events may:

1. Incur a decline in positive reinforcements
2. Even lead to learned helplessness, where individuals learn through experience that they seemingly can’t bring about positive life outcomes

Question 63

The alternative explanations of depression are the genetic explanation and the behavioural explanation.
The behavioural explanation:
The behavioural explanation sees depression as a learned condition.
Lewinsohn (1974) proposed that negative life events may incur a decline in positive reinforcements and even lead to learned helplessness, where individuals learn through experience that they seemingly can’t bring about positive life outcomes.
What could depression even result from?

Answer 63

Depression could even result from social learning

Question 64

The alternative explanations of depression are the genetic explanation and the behavioural explanation.
The behavioural explanation:
The behavioural explanation sees depression as a learned condition.
Lewinsohn (1974) proposed that negative life events may incur a decline in positive reinforcements and even lead to learned helplessness, where individuals learn through experience that they seemingly can’t bring about positive life outcomes.
Depression could even result from social learning, through what?

Answer 64

Depression could even result from social learning, through the:
1. Observation
2. Imitation
of depressed others

Question 65

The behavioural explanation:
Research:
Maier and Seligman (1976) found that participants placed in a situation where escape from noise or shocks was impossible didn’t try to escape from future similar situations where escape was possible, supporting the concept of learned helplessness.

Coleman (1986) found that individuals receiving low rates of positive reinforcement for social behaviours became increasingly passive and non-responsive, leading to depressive moods, which provides support for Lewinsohn’s learning theory.

Answer 65

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Question 66

The behavioural explanation:
Evaluation:
For:

Against:
1. Kanter et al. (2008) state that behaviourism cannot offer an account of depression that addresses its complexity satisfactorily.
Cognitive explanations are more able to do this, as they can account for the irrational thought processes that are seen as underpinning the condition

2. Overall, there is little research evidence that solidly backs up behaviourist explanations, while the cognitive approach is supported by a body of research-based evidence, which strongly suggests that the cognitive explanation is superior.

Answer 66

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Question 67

What does the biological approach to understanding mental disorders suggest?

Answer 67

The biological approach to understanding mental disorders suggests that:
1. Genes
2. Neurotransmitters
may cause depression

Question 68

The biological approach to understanding mental disorders suggests that genes and neurotransmitters may cause depression.
What does the success of drug therapies for treating depression suggest?

Answer 68

The success of drug therapies for treating depression suggests that neurotransmitters do play an important role

Question 69

The biological approach to understanding mental disorders suggests that genes and neurotransmitters may cause depression.
The success of drug therapies for treating depression suggests that neurotransmitters do play an important role, why?

Answer 69

The success of drug therapies for treating depression suggests that neurotransmitters do play an important role, because the medication:

1. Alters the levels of specific neurotransmitters
2. Reduces the symptoms of depression

Question 70

The biological approach to understanding mental disorders suggests that genes and neurotransmitters may cause depression.
The success of drug therapies for treating depression suggests that neurotransmitters do play an important role, because the medication alters the levels of specific neurotransmitters and reduces the symptoms of depression.
At the very least, what approach might be advisable?

Answer 70

At the very least, a diathesis-stress approach might be advisable

Question 71

The biological approach to understanding mental disorders suggests that genes and neurotransmitters may cause depression.
The success of drug therapies for treating depression suggests that neurotransmitters do play an important role, because the medication alters the levels of specific neurotransmitters and reduces the symptoms of depression.
At the very least, a diathesis-stress approach might be advisable, suggesting what?

Answer 71

At the very least, a diathesis-stress approach might be advisable, suggesting that individuals with a genetic vulnerability to depression are more prone to the effects of living in a negative environment

Question 72

The biological approach to understanding mental disorders suggests that genes and neurotransmitters may cause depression.
The success of drug therapies for treating depression suggests that neurotransmitters do play an important role, because the medication alters the levels of specific neurotransmitters and reduces the symptoms of depression.
At the very least, a diathesis-stress approach might be advisable, suggesting that individuals with a genetic vulnerability to depression are more prone to the effects of living in a negative environment, which then leads to what?

Answer 72

At the very least, a diathesis-stress approach might be advisable, suggesting that individuals with a genetic vulnerability to depression are more prone to the effects of living in a negative environment, which then leads to negative, irrational thinking