2.1: Short-term memory (STM) Flashcards by Young Dave

Short-term memory (STM)

Short-term memory (STM) is the limited-capacity, temporary memory store holding small amounts of information for brief periods

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Short-term memory (STM) is what is known as a limited capacity store, because it can only contain a certain number of what before what takes place?

Short-term memory (STM) is what is known as a limited capacity store, because it can only contain a certain number of ‘things’ before forgetting takes place

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What is the capacity of the short-term memory (STM)?

The capacity of the short-term memory (STM) is, on average, somewhere between 5 and 9 items of information (7 + or - 2)

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When does maintenance rehearsal occur?

Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat (rehearse) material to ourselves over and over again

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Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat (rehearse) material to ourselves over and over again.
We can keep the information in our short-term memories as long as we do what?

We can keep the information in our short-term memories as long as we rehearse it

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Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat (rehearse) material to ourselves over and over again.
We can keep the information in our short-term memories as long as we rehearse it.
If we rehearse it long enough, it does what?

If we rehearse it long enough, it passes into our long-term memory (LTM)

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STM temporarily stores information received from the sensory memory.
It is a what memory system?

STM is an active (changing) memory system

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STM temporarily stores information received from the sensory memory.
STM is an active (changing) memory system, because it contains information that is what?

STM is an active (changing) memory system, because it contains information that is currently being thought about

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STM temporarily stores information received from the sensory memory.
STM is an active (changing) memory system, because it contains information that is currently being thought about.
STM differs from LTM especially in terms of what?

STM differs from LTM especially in terms of:

Coding, capacity and duration
How information is forgotten

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Coding in the short-term memory (STM):

Information arrives from the sensory memory in its what form?

Information arrives from the sensory memory in its original, raw form

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Information arrives from the sensory memory in its original, raw form, such as in:
1. Sound
Or,
2. Vision
,and is then encoded (entered into STM) in a form that the STM can more easily deal with

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Visually, by thinking of the image of a platypus

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Acoustically, by repeatedly saying ‘platypus’

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Coding in the short-term memory (STM):
Information arrives from the sensory memory in its original, raw form, such as in sound or vision, and is then encoded (entered into STM) in a form that the STM can more easily deal with.
For example, if the input into the sensory memory was the word ‘platypus,’ this could be coded into STM in several ways:
Visually, by thinking of the image of a platypus.
Acoustically, by repeatedly saying ‘platypus.’
Semantically (through meaning), by doing what?

Semantically (through meaning), by using knowledge of platypuses

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Research suggests that the main form of coding in STM is acoustic (by sound)

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Research suggests that the main form of coding in STM is acoustic (by sound), but other codes exist, too

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STM has a limited capacity, because only a small amount of information is held in the store.
Research indicates that between 5 and 9 items can be held, though capacity is increased by what?

Research indicates that between 5 and 9 items can be held, though capacity is increased by chunking

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Chunking

Chunking is a method of increasing STM capacity by grouping information into larger:
1. Units
Or,
2. Chunks

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The duration of the STM:

The amount of time information remains within STM without being lost is limited to a maximum of what?

The amount of time information remains within STM without being lost is limited to a maximum of about 30 seconds

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The duration of the STM:
The amount of time information remains within STM without being lost is limited to a maximum of about 30 seconds.
This can be extended by what of the information?

This can be extended by rehearsal (repetition) of the information

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The duration of the STM:
The amount of time information remains within STM without being lost is limited to a maximum of about 30 seconds.
This can be extended by rehearsal (repetition) of the information, which if done long enough will result in transfer of the information into LTM, where it will become a more what feature?

This can be extended by rehearsal (repetition) of the information, which if done long enough will result in transfer of the information into LTM, where it will become a more long-lasting feature

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Research for coding in the STM:
Who (what year) found that participants were faster in assessing that ‘A’ followed by ‘A’ was the same letter than when ‘A’ was followed by ‘a’?

Posner and Keele (1967) found that participants were faster in assessing that ‘A’ followed by ‘A’ was the same letter than when ‘A’ was followed by ‘a’

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Research for coding in the STM:
Posner and Keele (1967) found that participants were faster in assessing that ‘A’ followed by ‘A’ was the same letter than when ‘A’ was followed by ‘a.’
Because the visual code differs when ‘A’ is followed by ‘a,’ the findings show that what was occurring?

Because the visual code differs when ‘A’ is followed by ‘a,’ the findings show that visual coding was occurring

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Because the visual code differs when ‘A’ is followed by ‘a,’ the findings show that visual coding was occurring, which illustrates how codes other than the acoustic code occur in STM

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Research for coding in the STM: Posner and Keele (1967) found that participants were faster in assessing that 'A' followed by 'A' was the same letter than when 'A' was followed by 'a.' Because the visual code differs when 'A' is followed by 'a,' the findings show that visual coding was occurring, which illustrates how codes other than the acoustic code occur in STM. Although research shows that coding in STM is mainly acoustic, other sensory codes, such as visual, are used, too. Indeed, some stimuli like what would be difficult to code acoustically?

``` Indeed, some stimuli like: 1. Faces Or, 2. The smell of food would be difficult to code acoustically ```

Research for capacity of the STM: How much information can STM hold at any one time? What is its capacity? Who (what year) developed a technique to measure digit span?

Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span

The digit span method is where the: 1. Researcher gives a number of digits 2. Participant has to recall them all in order

The researcher then increases the amount by one digit

The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order

This determines their digit span

Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items

Jacobs found that the mean span for: 1. Digits across all participants was 9.3 items 2. Letters was 7.3

Jacobs found that the mean span for: 1. Digits across all participants was 9.3 items 2. Letters was 7.3 ,which illustrates how the capacity of STM is limited

Numbers may be easier to recall, because there are only 9 single-digit numbers (0 - 9)

Numbers may be easier to recall, because there are only 9 single-digit numbers (0 - 9), compared to 26 letters in the English language (A - Z)

One criticism is that experimental tasks such as recalling lists of letters: 1. Have little relevance to everyday activities 2. So lack mundane realism

Research for capacity of the STM: How much information can STM hold at any one time? What is its capacity? Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span. The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order. The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order. This determines their digit span. Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items and the mean span for letters was 7.3, which illustrates how the capacity of STM is limited. Numbers may be easier to recall, because there are only 9 single-digit numbers (0 - 9), compared to 26 letters in the English language (A - Z). One criticism is that experimental tasks such as recalling lists of letters have little relevance to everyday activities and so lack mundane realism. Another limitation of Jacob's study is that it was conducted when?

Another limitation of Jacob's study is that it was conducted a long time ago

Early research in psychology often lacked adequate control

For example, some participants may have been distracted while they were being tested, so they didn't perform as well as they might have done

This would mean that the results might not be valid

This would mean that the results might not be valid, because there were confounding variables that were not controlled

The results of this study have been confirmed in other research, supporting its validity

Research for capacity of the STM: | Who (what year), a sociologist, did what of everyday practice?

George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice

Research for capacity of the STM: George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice. Example

For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s

Research for capacity of the STM: George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice. For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a what?

For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale

For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale, 7 days of the week

For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale, 7 days of the week, 7 deadly sins, and so on

Landline numbers in real life, everyday situations also have 7 digits

Miller also reviewed research to find that if the capacity of STM is 5 - 9 items, we can remember more, as long as we break information down into 5 - 9 manageable chunks

Research for capacity of the STM: George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice. For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale, 7 days of the week, 7 deadly sins, and so on. Real life application - Landline numbers in real life, everyday situations also have 7 digits. This suggests that the span (or capacity) of STM is about 7 items (+ or - 2). However, Miller also reviewed research to find that if the capacity of STM is 5 - 9 items, we can remember more, as long as we break information down into 5 - 9 manageable chunks. Miller discovered that people can do what through chunking?

Miller discovered that people can remember 5 words as easily as 5 letters through chunking

One limitation of Miller's research is that he may have overestimated the capacity of the STM

For example, Cowan (2001): 1. Reviewed other research 2. Concluded that the capacity of STM was only about 4 chunks

This suggests that the lower end of Miller's estimate (5 items) is more appropriate than 7 items

Research for capacity of the STM: | There may be what differences in STM capacity?

There may be individual differences in STM capacity

Research for capacity of the STM: There may be individual differences in STM capacity. Who (what year) found that capacity varied between how many items?

Daneman and Carpenter (1980) found that capacity varied between: 1. 5 2. 20 items

Research for capacity of the STM: There may be individual differences in STM capacity. Daneman and Carpenter (1980) found that capacity varied between 5 and 20 items between who?

Daneman and Carpenter (1980) found that capacity varied between 5 and 20 items between those with: 1. Advanced reading comprehension 2. Poor reading comprehension

The duration of the STM: The amount of time information remains within STM without being lost is limited to a maximum of about 30 seconds. This can be extended by rehearsal (repetition) of the information, which if done long enough will result in transfer of the information into LTM, where it will become a more long-lasting feature. The duration of STM is between about how many seconds?

The duration of STM is between about: 1. 18 2. 30 seconds

Research for duration of the STM: | Who (what year) gave participants what to remember?

Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember

Research for duration of the STM: | Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example what?

Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example: 1. KLT 2. GYD

Research for duration of the STM: Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to do what?

Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example: 1. KLT 2. GYD ,but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time

``` Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were: 1. 3 seconds 2. 6 seconds 3. 9 seconds 4. 12 seconds 5. 15 seconds Or, 6. 18 seconds ```

Research for duration of the STM: Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were 3 seconds, 6 seconds, 9 seconds, 12 seconds or 15 seconds. Why was this done?

This was done to prevent rehearsal

Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order

The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds

It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it

A limitation of Peterson and Peterson's study is that the stimulus material was artificial

Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities

Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful

So we might say that Peterson and Peterson's study lacked: 1. External validity 2. Mundane realism

Research for duration of the STM: Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time. This was done to prevent rehearsal. Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order. The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds. It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it. A limitation of Peterson and Peterson's study is that the stimulus material was artificial. Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful. So we might say that Peterson and Peterson's study lacked external validity and mundane realism. However, we do sometimes try to remember what things?

We do sometimes try to remember fairly meaingless things

Research for duration of the STM: Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time. This was done to prevent rehearsal. Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order. The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds. It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it. A limitation of Peterson and Peterson's study is that the stimulus material was artificial. Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful. So we might say that Peterson and Peterson's study lacked external validity and mundane realism. However, we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless things, such as what?

We do sometimes try to remember fairly meaingless things, such as phone numbers

Research for duration of the STM: Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time. This was done to prevent rehearsal. Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order. The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds. It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it. A limitation of Peterson and Peterson's study is that the stimulus material was artificial. Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful. So we might say that Peterson and Peterson's study lacked external validity and mundane realism. However, we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless things, such as phone numbers, so Peterson and Peterson's study is not what?

We do sometimes try to remember fairly meaingless things, such as phone numbers, so Peterson and Peterson's study is not totally irrelevant

Research for duration of the STM: Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time. This was done to prevent rehearsal. Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order. The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds. It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it. A limitation of Peterson and Peterson's study is that the stimulus material was artificial. Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful. So we might say that Peterson and Peterson's study lacked external validity and mundane realism. However, we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless things, such as phone numbers, so Peterson and Peterson's study is not totally irrelevant. As well as this, Peterson and Peterson's results may be due to what?

As well as this, Peterson and Peterson's results may be due to flawed methodology

Research for duration of the STM: Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time. This was done to prevent rehearsal. Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order. The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds. It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it. A limitation of Peterson and Peterson's study is that the stimulus material was artificial. Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful. So we might say that Peterson and Peterson's study lacked external validity and mundane realism. However, we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless things, such as phone numbers, so Peterson and Peterson's study is not totally irrelevant. As well as this, Peterson and Peterson's results may be due to flawed methodology. Different what were used on each trial?

Different trigrams were used on each trial

Research for duration of the STM: Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time. This was done to prevent rehearsal. Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order. The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds. It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it. A limitation of Peterson and Peterson's study is that the stimulus material was artificial. Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful. So we might say that Peterson and Peterson's study lacked external validity and mundane realism. However, we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless things, such as phone numbers, so Peterson and Peterson's study is not totally irrelevant. As well as this, Peterson and Peterson's results may be due to flawed methodology. Because different trigrams were used on each trial, this may have led to what?

Because different trigrams were used on each trial, this may have led to interference between items

Research for duration of the STM: Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time. This was done to prevent rehearsal. Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order. The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds. It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it. A limitation of Peterson and Peterson's study is that the stimulus material was artificial. Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful. So we might say that Peterson and Peterson's study lacked external validity and mundane realism. However, we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless things, such as phone numbers, so Peterson and Peterson's study is not totally irrelevant. As well as this, Peterson and Peterson's results may be due to flawed methodology. Because different trigrams were used on each trial, this may have led to interference between items, leading to what?

Because different trigrams were used on each trial, this may have led to interference between items, leading to decreased recall

Research for duration of the STM: | Who (what year) found that if participant's weren't expected to have to do what, STM duration was only between what?

Marsh et al. (1997) found that if participants weren't expecting to have to recall information, STM duration was only between: 1. 2 2. 4 seconds

Research for duration of the STM: Marsh et al. (1997) found that if participants weren't expecting to have to recall information, STM duration was only between 2 and 4 seconds. This suggests that duration of the STM is affected by what?

This suggests that duration of the STM is affected by the amount of time taken to process information

Research for duration of the STM: One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay. What is sponaneous decay?

Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed

An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974)

The information in STM is displaced

STM has a limited capacity and any new information will push out what is currently there

Research for duration of the STM: One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay. Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed. An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974). Reitman (1974) suggested that the brief duration of the STM is due to displacement. The information in STM is displaced. STM has a limited capacity and any new information will push out what is currently there. In Peterson and Peterson's study, participants were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time. This could have also led to what?

This could have also led to decreased recall

Research for duration of the STM: | There is little research evidence considering what?

There is little research evidence considering the STM duration of other forms of stimuli

Research for duration of the STM: | There is little research evidence considering the STM duration of other forms of stimuli, like what?

There is little research evidence considering the STM duration of other forms of stimuli, like visual images

Acoustically

Acoustically is realting to: 1. Sound Or, 2. The sense of hearing

Research for duration of the STM: One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay. Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed. An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974). Reitman (1974) suggested that the brief duration of the STM is due to displacement. The information in STM is displaced. STM has a limited capacity and any new information will push out what is currently there. Who (what year) found that if a number (called the what)

Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe)

Research for duration of the STM: One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay. Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed. An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974). Reitman (1974) suggested that the brief duration of the STM is due to displacement. The information in STM is displaced. STM has a limited capacity and any new information will push out what is currently there. Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe) occurred where?

Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe) occurred nearer the end of a list

Research for duration of the STM: One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay. Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed. An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974). Reitman (1974) suggested that the brief duration of the STM is due to displacement. The information in STM is displaced. STM has a limited capacity and any new information will push out what is currently there. Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe) occurred nearer the end of a list than where?

Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe) occurred nearer the end of a list than the beginning

Research for duration of the STM: One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay. Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed. An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974). Reitman (1974) suggested that the brief duration of the STM is due to displacement. The information in STM is displaced. STM has a limited capacity and any new information will push out what is currently there. Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe) occurred nearer the end of a list than the beginning, recall of what was what?

Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe) occurred nearer the end of a list than the beginning, recall of the next number was better

Research for duration of the STM: One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay. Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed. An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974). Reitman (1974) suggested that the brief duration of the STM is due to displacement. The information in STM is displaced. STM has a limited capacity and any new information will push out what is currently there. Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe) occurred nearer the end of a list than the beginning, recall of the next number was better. What does this suggest?

This suggests that later numbers had displaced earlier ones from the limited capacity STM store

Who (what year) used the probe technique to assess what?

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the: 1. Displacement 2. Decay theories

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the displacement and decay theories, finding what?

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the: 1. Displacement 2. Decay theories, finding that forgetting was less if numbers were presented faster

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the displacement and decay theories, finding that forgetting was less if numbers were presented faster (less chance for what)?

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the: 1. Displacement 2. Decay theories, finding that forgetting was less if numbers were presented faster (less chance for the information to decay)

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the displacement and decay theories: 1. Finding that forgetting was less if numbers were presented faster (less chance for the information to decay) ,but also 2. Found that changing the probe's position had a stronger effect

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the displacement and decay theories, finding that forgetting was less if numbers were presented faster (less chance for the information to decay), but also found that changing the probe's position had a stronger effect (affecting the chances for displacement to occur). What does this indicate?

This indicates that both: 1. Displacement 2. Decay cause forgetting in STM

This indicates that both: 1. Displacement 2. Decay cause forgetting in STM, but that displacement is more important

Evaluation of the displacement theory: | Displacement can explain what?

Displacement can explain forgetting in STM

Evaluation of the displacement theory: | Displacement can explain forgetting in STM, because the capacity of LTM is believed to be what?

Displacement can explain forgetting in STM, because the capacity of LTM is believed to be practically endless

Evaluation of the displacement theory: Displacement can explain forgetting in STM, because the capacity of LTM is believed to be practically endless, so it would therefore be impossible for LTM to be what?

Displacement can explain forgetting in STM, because the capacity of LTM is believed to be practically endless, so it would therefore be impossible for LTM to be 'full'

Displacement can explain forgetting in STM, because the capacity of LTM is believed to be practically endless, so it would therefore be impossible for LTM to: 1. Be 'full' 2. Allow newer material to displace older material

For example, what would the sound of chocolate cake be?

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ. Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks). What is there evidence from?

There is evidence from brain scan studies

There is evidence from brain scan studies, for example Squire (1992) found that: 1. The hippocampus is active in LTM tasks 2. Areas in the prefrontal cortex are active during STM tasks