2.1: Short-term memory (STM)

Question 1

Short-term memory (STM)

Answer 1

Short-term memory (STM) is the limited-capacity, temporary memory store holding small amounts of information for brief periods

Question 2

Short-term memory (STM) is what is known as a limited capacity store, because it can only contain a certain number of what before what takes place?

Answer 2

Short-term memory (STM) is what is known as a limited capacity store, because it can only contain a certain number of ‘things’ before forgetting takes place

Question 3

What is the capacity of the short-term memory (STM)?

Answer 3

The capacity of the short-term memory (STM) is, on average, somewhere between 5 and 9 items of information (7 + or - 2)

Question 4

When does maintenance rehearsal occur?

Answer 4

Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat (rehearse) material to ourselves over and over again

Question 5

Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat (rehearse) material to ourselves over and over again.
We can keep the information in our short-term memories as long as we do what?

Answer 5

We can keep the information in our short-term memories as long as we rehearse it

Question 6

Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat (rehearse) material to ourselves over and over again.
We can keep the information in our short-term memories as long as we rehearse it.
If we rehearse it long enough, it does what?

Answer 6

If we rehearse it long enough, it passes into our long-term memory (LTM)

Question 7

STM temporarily stores information received from the sensory memory.
It is a what memory system?

Answer 7

STM is an active (changing) memory system

Question 8

STM temporarily stores information received from the sensory memory.
STM is an active (changing) memory system, because it contains information that is what?

Answer 8

STM is an active (changing) memory system, because it contains information that is currently being thought about

Question 9

STM temporarily stores information received from the sensory memory.
STM is an active (changing) memory system, because it contains information that is currently being thought about.
STM differs from LTM especially in terms of what?

Answer 9

STM differs from LTM especially in terms of:

1. Coding, capacity and duration
2. How information is forgotten

Question 10

Coding in the short-term memory (STM):

Information arrives from the sensory memory in its what form?

Answer 10

Information arrives from the sensory memory in its original, raw form

Question 11

Coding in the short-term memory (STM):
Information arrives from the sensory memory in its original, raw form, such as in sound or vision, and is then encoded (entered into STM) in a form that the STM can more easily do what with?

Answer 11

Information arrives from the sensory memory in its original, raw form, such as in:
1. Sound
Or,
2. Vision
,and is then encoded (entered into STM) in a form that the STM can more easily deal with

Question 12

Coding in the short-term memory (STM):
Information arrives from the sensory memory in its original, raw form, such as in sound or vision, and is then encoded (entered into STM) in a form that the STM can more easily deal with.
For example, if the input into the sensory memory was the word ‘platypus,’ this could be coded into STM in several ways:
Visually, by doing what?

Answer 12

Visually, by thinking of the image of a platypus

Question 13

Coding in the short-term memory (STM):
Information arrives from the sensory memory in its original, raw form, such as in sound or vision, and is then encoded (entered into STM) in a form that the STM can more easily deal with.
For example, if the input into the sensory memory was the word ‘platypus,’ this could be coded into STM in several ways:
Visually, by thinking of the image of a platypus.
Acoustically, by doing what?

Answer 13

Acoustically, by repeatedly saying ‘platypus’

Question 14

Coding in the short-term memory (STM):
Information arrives from the sensory memory in its original, raw form, such as in sound or vision, and is then encoded (entered into STM) in a form that the STM can more easily deal with.
For example, if the input into the sensory memory was the word ‘platypus,’ this could be coded into STM in several ways:
Visually, by thinking of the image of a platypus.
Acoustically, by repeatedly saying ‘platypus.’
Semantically (through meaning), by doing what?

Answer 14

Semantically (through meaning), by using knowledge of platypuses

Question 15

Coding in the short-term memory (STM):
Information arrives from the sensory memory in its original, raw form, such as in sound or vision, and is then encoded (entered into STM) in a form that the STM can more easily deal with.
For example, if the input into the sensory memory was the word ‘platypus,’ this could be coded into STM in several ways:
Visually, by thinking of the image of a platypus.
Acoustically, by repeatedly saying ‘platypus.’
Semantically (through meaning), by using knowledge of platypuses.
Research suggests that the main form of coding in STM is what?

Answer 15

Research suggests that the main form of coding in STM is acoustic (by sound)

Question 16

Coding in the short-term memory (STM):
Information arrives from the sensory memory in its original, raw form, such as in sound or vision, and is then encoded (entered into STM) in a form that the STM can more easily deal with.
For example, if the input into the sensory memory was the word ‘platypus,’ this could be coded into STM in several ways:
Visually, by thinking of the image of a platypus.
Acoustically, by repeatedly saying ‘platypus.’
Semantically (through meaning), by using knowledge of platypuses.
Research suggests that the main form of coding in STM is acoustic (by sound), but what exist, too?

Answer 16

Research suggests that the main form of coding in STM is acoustic (by sound), but other codes exist, too

Question 17

STM has a limited capacity, because only a small amount of information is held in the store.
Research indicates that between 5 and 9 items can be held, though capacity is increased by what?

Answer 17

Research indicates that between 5 and 9 items can be held, though capacity is increased by chunking

Question 18

Chunking

Answer 18

Chunking is a method of increasing STM capacity by grouping information into larger:
1. Units
Or,
2. Chunks

Question 19

The duration of the STM:

The amount of time information remains within STM without being lost is limited to a maximum of what?

Answer 19

The amount of time information remains within STM without being lost is limited to a maximum of about 30 seconds

Question 20

The duration of the STM:
The amount of time information remains within STM without being lost is limited to a maximum of about 30 seconds.
This can be extended by what of the information?

Answer 20

This can be extended by rehearsal (repetition) of the information

Question 21

The duration of the STM:
The amount of time information remains within STM without being lost is limited to a maximum of about 30 seconds.
This can be extended by rehearsal (repetition) of the information, which if done long enough will result in transfer of the information into LTM, where it will become a more what feature?

Answer 21

This can be extended by rehearsal (repetition) of the information, which if done long enough will result in transfer of the information into LTM, where it will become a more long-lasting feature

Question 22

Research for coding in the STM:
Who (what year) found that participants were faster in assessing that ‘A’ followed by ‘A’ was the same letter than when ‘A’ was followed by ‘a’?

Answer 22

Posner and Keele (1967) found that participants were faster in assessing that ‘A’ followed by ‘A’ was the same letter than when ‘A’ was followed by ‘a’

Question 23

Research for coding in the STM:
Posner and Keele (1967) found that participants were faster in assessing that ‘A’ followed by ‘A’ was the same letter than when ‘A’ was followed by ‘a.’
Because the visual code differs when ‘A’ is followed by ‘a,’ the findings show that what was occurring?

Answer 23

Because the visual code differs when ‘A’ is followed by ‘a,’ the findings show that visual coding was occurring

Question 24

Research for coding in the STM:
Posner and Keele (1967) found that participants were faster in assessing that ‘A’ followed by ‘A’ was the same letter than when ‘A’ was followed by ‘a.’
Because the visual code differs when ‘A’ is followed by ‘a,’ the findings show that visual coding was occurring, which illustrates how what occur in STM?

Answer 24

Because the visual code differs when ‘A’ is followed by ‘a,’ the findings show that visual coding was occurring, which illustrates how codes other than the acoustic code occur in STM

Question 25

Research for coding in the STM:
Posner and Keele (1967) found that participants were faster in assessing that ‘A’ followed by ‘A’ was the same letter than when ‘A’ was followed by ‘a.’
Because the visual code differs when ‘A’ is followed by ‘a,’ the findings show that visual coding was occurring, which illustrates how codes other than the acoustic code occur in STM.
Although research shows that coding in STM is mainly acoustic, other sensory codes, such as visual, are used, too.
Indeed, some stimuli like what would be difficult to code acoustically?

Answer 25

Indeed, some stimuli like:
1. Faces
Or,
2. The smell of food
would be difficult to code acoustically

Question 26

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Who (what year) developed a technique to measure digit span?

Answer 26

Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span

Question 27

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to do what?

Answer 27

The digit span method is where the:

1. Researcher gives a number of digits
2. Participant has to recall them all in order

Question 28

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then does what?

Answer 28

The researcher then increases the amount by one digit

Question 29

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to do what?

Answer 29

The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order

Question 30

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order.
This determines what?

Answer 30

This determines their digit span

Question 31

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order.
This determines their digit span.
Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was what?

Answer 31

Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items

Question 32

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order.
This determines their digit span.
Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items and the mean span for letters was what?

Answer 32

Jacobs found that the mean span for:

1. Digits across all participants was 9.3 items
2. Letters was 7.3

Question 33

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order.
This determines their digit span.
Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items and the mean span for letters was 7.3, which illustrates what?

Answer 33

Jacobs found that the mean span for:
1. Digits across all participants was 9.3 items
2. Letters was 7.3
,which illustrates how the capacity of STM is limited

Question 34

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order.
This determines their digit span.
Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items and the mean span for letters was 7.3, which illustrates how the capacity of STM is limited.
Why may numbers be easier to recall?

Answer 34

Numbers may be easier to recall, because there are only 9 single-digit numbers (0 - 9)

Question 35

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order.
This determines their digit span.
Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items and the mean span for letters was 7.3, which illustrates how the capacity of STM is limited.
Numbers may be easier to recall, because there are only 9 single-digit numbers (0 - 9), compared to what?

Answer 35

Numbers may be easier to recall, because there are only 9 single-digit numbers (0 - 9), compared to 26 letters in the English language (A - Z)

Question 36

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order.
This determines their digit span.
Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items and the mean span for letters was 7.3, which illustrates how the capacity of STM is limited.
Numbers may be easier to recall, because there are only 9 single-digit numbers (0 - 9), compared to 26 letters in the English language (A - Z).
One criticism is that experimental tasks such as recalling lists of letters have what to everyday activities and so what?

Answer 36

One criticism is that experimental tasks such as recalling lists of letters:

1. Have little relevance to everyday activities
2. So lack mundane realism

Question 37

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order.
This determines their digit span.
Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items and the mean span for letters was 7.3, which illustrates how the capacity of STM is limited.
Numbers may be easier to recall, because there are only 9 single-digit numbers (0 - 9), compared to 26 letters in the English language (A - Z).
One criticism is that experimental tasks such as recalling lists of letters have little relevance to everyday activities and so lack mundane realism.
Another limitation of Jacob’s study is that it was conducted when?

Answer 37

Another limitation of Jacob’s study is that it was conducted a long time ago

Question 38

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order.
This determines their digit span.
Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items and the mean span for letters was 7.3, which illustrates how the capacity of STM is limited.
Numbers may be easier to recall, because there are only 9 single-digit numbers (0 - 9), compared to 26 letters in the English language (A - Z).
One criticism is that experimental tasks such as recalling lists of letters have little relevance to everyday activities and so lack mundane realism.
Another limitation of Jacob’s study is that it was conducted a long time ago.
Early research in psychology often lacked what?

Answer 38

Early research in psychology often lacked adequate control

Question 39

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order.
This determines their digit span.
Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items and the mean span for letters was 7.3, which illustrates how the capacity of STM is limited.
Numbers may be easier to recall, because there are only 9 single-digit numbers (0 - 9), compared to 26 letters in the English language (A - Z).
One criticism is that experimental tasks such as recalling lists of letters have little relevance to everyday activities and so lack mundane realism.
Another limitation of Jacob’s study is that it was conducted a long time ago.
Early research in psychology often lacked adequate control.
Example

Answer 39

For example, some participants may have been distracted while they were being tested, so they didn’t perform as well as they might have done

Question 40

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order.
This determines their digit span.
Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items and the mean span for letters was 7.3, which illustrates how the capacity of STM is limited.
Numbers may be easier to recall, because there are only 9 single-digit numbers (0 - 9), compared to 26 letters in the English language (A - Z).
One criticism is that experimental tasks such as recalling lists of letters have little relevance to everyday activities and so lack mundane realism.
Another limitation of Jacob’s study is that it was conducted a long time ago.
Early research in psychology often lacked adequate control.
For example, some participants may have been distracted while they were being tested, so they didn’t perform as well as they might have done.
This would mean that the results might not be what?

Answer 40

This would mean that the results might not be valid

Question 41

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order.
This determines their digit span.
Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items and the mean span for letters was 7.3, which illustrates how the capacity of STM is limited.
Numbers may be easier to recall, because there are only 9 single-digit numbers (0 - 9), compared to 26 letters in the English language (A - Z).
One criticism is that experimental tasks such as recalling lists of letters have little relevance to everyday activities and so lack mundane realism.
Another limitation of Jacob’s study is that it was conducted a long time ago.
Early research in psychology often lacked adequate control.
For example, some participants may have been distracted while they were being tested, so they didn’t perform as well as they might have done.
Why would this mean that the results might not be valid?

Answer 41

This would mean that the results might not be valid, because there were confounding variables that were not controlled

Question 42

Research for capacity of the STM:
How much information can STM hold at any one time?
What is its capacity?
Jacobs (1887) developed a technique to measure digit span.
The digit span method is where the researcher gives a number of digits and the participant has to recall them all in order.
The researcher then increases the amount by one digit and the participant has to recall them all again until they cannot recall the correct order.
This determines their digit span.
Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items and the mean span for letters was 7.3, which illustrates how the capacity of STM is limited.
Numbers may be easier to recall, because there are only 9 single-digit numbers (0 - 9), compared to 26 letters in the English language (A - Z).
One criticism is that experimental tasks such as recalling lists of letters have little relevance to everyday activities and so lack mundane realism.
Another limitation of Jacob’s study is that it was conducted a long time ago.
Early research in psychology often lacked adequate control.
For example, some participants may have been distracted while they were being tested, so they didn’t perform as well as they might have done.
This would mean that the results might not be valid, because there were confounding variables that were not controlled.
However, the results of this study have been what, supporting its what?

Answer 42

The results of this study have been confirmed in other research, supporting its validity

Question 43

Research for capacity of the STM:

Who (what year), a sociologist, did what of everyday practice?

Answer 43

George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice

Question 44

Research for capacity of the STM:
George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice.
Example

Answer 44

For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s

Question 45

Research for capacity of the STM:
George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice.
For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a what?

Answer 45

For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale

Question 46

Research for capacity of the STM:
George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice.
For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale, 7 what of the week?

Answer 46

For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale, 7 days of the week

Question 47

Research for capacity of the STM:
George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice.
For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale, 7 days of the week, 7 deadly what, and so on?

Answer 47

For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale, 7 days of the week, 7 deadly sins, and so on

Question 48

Research for capacity of the STM:
George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice.
For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale, 7 days of the week, 7 deadly sins, and so on.
Real life application - What in real life, everyday situations also have 7 digits?

Answer 48

Landline numbers in real life, everyday situations also have 7 digits

Question 49

Research for capacity of the STM:
George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice.
For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale, 7 days of the week, 7 deadly sins, and so on.
Real life application - Landline numbers in real life, everyday situations also have 7 digits.
This suggests that the span (or capacity) of STM is about 7 items (+ or - 2).
However, Miller also reviewed research to find that if the capacity of STM is 5 - 9 items, we can remember more, as long as we break information down into what?

Answer 49

Miller also reviewed research to find that if the capacity of STM is 5 - 9 items, we can remember more, as long as we break information down into 5 - 9 manageable chunks

Question 50

Research for capacity of the STM:
George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice.
For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale, 7 days of the week, 7 deadly sins, and so on.
Real life application - Landline numbers in real life, everyday situations also have 7 digits.
This suggests that the span (or capacity) of STM is about 7 items (+ or - 2).
However, Miller also reviewed research to find that if the capacity of STM is 5 - 9 items, we can remember more, as long as we break information down into 5 - 9 manageable chunks.
Miller discovered that people can do what through chunking?

Answer 50

Miller discovered that people can remember 5 words as easily as 5 letters through chunking

Question 51

Research for capacity of the STM:
George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice.
For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale, 7 days of the week, 7 deadly sins, and so on.
Real life application - Landline numbers in real life, everyday situations also have 7 digits.
This suggests that the span (or capacity) of STM is about 7 items (+ or - 2).
However, Miller also reviewed research to find that if the capacity of STM is 5 - 9 items, we can remember more, as long as we break information down into 5 - 9 manageable chunks.
Miller discovered that people can remember 5 words as easily as 5 letters through chunking.
One limitation of Miller’s research is that he may have done what?

Answer 51

One limitation of Miller’s research is that he may have overestimated the capacity of the STM

Question 52

Research for capacity of the STM:
George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice.
For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale, 7 days of the week, 7 deadly sins, and so on.
Real life application - Landline numbers in real life, everyday situations also have 7 digits.
This suggests that the span (or capacity) of STM is about 7 items (+ or - 2).
However, Miller also reviewed research to find that if the capacity of STM is 5 - 9 items, we can remember more, as long as we break information down into 5 - 9 manageable chunks.
Miller discovered that people can remember 5 words as easily as 5 letters through chunking.
One limitation of Miller’s research is that he may have overestimated the capacity of the STM.
Example

Answer 52

For example, Cowan (2001):

1. Reviewed other research
2. Concluded that the capacity of STM was only about 4 chunks

Question 53

Research for capacity of the STM:
George Miller (1956), a sociologist, made observations of everyday practice.
For example, Miller noted that most things come in 7s - There are 7 notes on a musical scale, 7 days of the week, 7 deadly sins, and so on.
Real life application - Landline numbers in real life, everyday situations also have 7 digits.
This suggests that the span (or capacity) of STM is about 7 items (+ or - 2).
However, Miller also reviewed research to find that if the capacity of STM is 5 - 9 items, we can remember more, as long as we break information down into 5 - 9 manageable chunks.
Miller discovered that people can remember 5 words as easily as 5 letters through chunking.
One limitation of Miller’s research is that he may have overestimated the capacity of the STM.
For example, Cowan (2001) reviewed other research and concluded that the capacity of STM was only about 4 chunks.
What does this suggest?

Answer 53

This suggests that the lower end of Miller’s estimate (5 items) is more appropriate than 7 items

Question 54

Research for capacity of the STM:

There may be what differences in STM capacity?

Answer 54

There may be individual differences in STM capacity

Question 55

Research for capacity of the STM:
There may be individual differences in STM capacity.
Who (what year) found that capacity varied between how many items?

Answer 55

Daneman and Carpenter (1980) found that capacity varied between:
1. 5
2. 20
items

Question 56

Research for capacity of the STM:
There may be individual differences in STM capacity.
Daneman and Carpenter (1980) found that capacity varied between 5 and 20 items between who?

Answer 56

Daneman and Carpenter (1980) found that capacity varied between 5 and 20 items between those with:

1. Advanced reading comprehension
2. Poor reading comprehension

Question 57

The duration of the STM:
The amount of time information remains within STM without being lost is limited to a maximum of about 30 seconds.
This can be extended by rehearsal (repetition) of the information, which if done long enough will result in transfer of the information into LTM, where it will become a more long-lasting feature.
The duration of STM is between about how many seconds?

Answer 57

The duration of STM is between about:
1. 18
2. 30
seconds

Question 58

Research for duration of the STM:

Who (what year) gave participants what to remember?

Answer 58

Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember

Question 59

Research for duration of the STM:

Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example what?

Answer 59

Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example:

1. KLT
2. GYD

Question 60

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to do what?

Answer 60

Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example:
1. KLT
2. GYD
,but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time

Question 61

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were what?

Answer 61

Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were:
1. 3 seconds
2. 6 seconds
3. 9 seconds
4. 12 seconds
5. 15 seconds
Or,
6. 18 seconds

Question 62

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time, which were 3 seconds, 6 seconds, 9 seconds, 12 seconds or 15 seconds.
Why was this done?

Answer 62

This was done to prevent rehearsal

Question 63

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to do what?

Answer 63

Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order

Question 64

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
The results of the study showed that participants what after 18 seconds?

Answer 64

The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds

Question 65

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that what?

Answer 65

It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it

Question 66

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
What is a limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study?

Answer 66

A limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study is that the stimulus material was artificial

Question 67

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
A limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study is that the stimulus material was artificial.
Trying to memorise what does not reflect what?

Answer 67

Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities

Question 68

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
A limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study is that the stimulus material was artificial.
Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is what?

Answer 68

Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful

Question 69

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
A limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study is that the stimulus material was artificial.
Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful.
So we might say that Peterson and Peterson’s study lacked what?

Answer 69

So we might say that Peterson and Peterson’s study lacked:

1. External validity
2. Mundane realism

Question 70

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
A limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study is that the stimulus material was artificial.
Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful.
So we might say that Peterson and Peterson’s study lacked external validity and mundane realism.
However, we do sometimes try to remember what things?

Answer 70

We do sometimes try to remember fairly meaingless things

Question 71

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
A limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study is that the stimulus material was artificial.
Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful.
So we might say that Peterson and Peterson’s study lacked external validity and mundane realism.
However, we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless things, such as what?

Answer 71

We do sometimes try to remember fairly meaingless things, such as phone numbers

Question 72

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
A limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study is that the stimulus material was artificial.
Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful.
So we might say that Peterson and Peterson’s study lacked external validity and mundane realism.
However, we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless things, such as phone numbers, so Peterson and Peterson’s study is not what?

Answer 72

We do sometimes try to remember fairly meaingless things, such as phone numbers, so Peterson and Peterson’s study is not totally irrelevant

Question 73

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
A limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study is that the stimulus material was artificial.
Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful.
So we might say that Peterson and Peterson’s study lacked external validity and mundane realism.
However, we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless things, such as phone numbers, so Peterson and Peterson’s study is not totally irrelevant.
As well as this, Peterson and Peterson’s results may be due to what?

Answer 73

As well as this, Peterson and Peterson’s results may be due to flawed methodology

Question 74

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
A limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study is that the stimulus material was artificial.
Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful.
So we might say that Peterson and Peterson’s study lacked external validity and mundane realism.
However, we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless things, such as phone numbers, so Peterson and Peterson’s study is not totally irrelevant.
As well as this, Peterson and Peterson’s results may be due to flawed methodology.
Different what were used on each trial?

Answer 74

Different trigrams were used on each trial

Question 75

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
A limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study is that the stimulus material was artificial.
Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful.
So we might say that Peterson and Peterson’s study lacked external validity and mundane realism.
However, we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless things, such as phone numbers, so Peterson and Peterson’s study is not totally irrelevant.
As well as this, Peterson and Peterson’s results may be due to flawed methodology.
Because different trigrams were used on each trial, this may have led to what?

Answer 75

Because different trigrams were used on each trial, this may have led to interference between items

Question 76

Research for duration of the STM:
Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants sets of 3 letters to remember, for example KLT and GYD, but were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This was done to prevent rehearsal.
Participants were then asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
The results of the study showed that participants had forgotten virtually all of the information after 18 seconds.
It was concluded that we cannot hold information in the STM store, unless we can rehearse it.
A limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study is that the stimulus material was artificial.
Trying to memorise consonant syllables does not reflect most real-life memory activities, where what we are trying to remember is meaningful.
So we might say that Peterson and Peterson’s study lacked external validity and mundane realism.
However, we do sometimes try to remember fairly meaningless things, such as phone numbers, so Peterson and Peterson’s study is not totally irrelevant.
As well as this, Peterson and Peterson’s results may be due to flawed methodology.
Because different trigrams were used on each trial, this may have led to interference between items, leading to what?

Answer 76

Because different trigrams were used on each trial, this may have led to interference between items, leading to decreased recall

Question 77

Research for duration of the STM:

Who (what year) found that if participant’s weren’t expected to have to do what, STM duration was only between what?

Answer 77

Marsh et al. (1997) found that if participants weren’t expecting to have to recall information, STM duration was only between:
1. 2
2. 4
seconds

Question 78

Research for duration of the STM:
Marsh et al. (1997) found that if participants weren’t expecting to have to recall information, STM duration was only between 2 and 4 seconds.
This suggests that duration of the STM is affected by what?

Answer 78

This suggests that duration of the STM is affected by the amount of time taken to process information

Question 79

Research for duration of the STM:
One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay.
What is sponaneous decay?

Answer 79

Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed

Question 80

Research for duration of the STM:
One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay.
Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed.
An alternative explanation was suggested by who (what year)?

Answer 80

An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974)

Question 81

Research for duration of the STM:
One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay.
Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed.
An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974).
Reitman (1974) suggested that the brief duration of the STM is due to displacement.
The information in STM is what?

Answer 81

The information in STM is displaced

Question 82

Research for duration of the STM:
One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay.
Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed.
An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974).
Reitman (1974) suggested that the brief duration of the STM is due to displacement.
The information in STM is displaced.
STM has a limited capacity and any new information will do what?

Answer 82

STM has a limited capacity and any new information will push out what is currently there

Question 83

Research for duration of the STM:
One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay.
Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed.
An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974).
Reitman (1974) suggested that the brief duration of the STM is due to displacement.
The information in STM is displaced.
STM has a limited capacity and any new information will push out what is currently there.
In Peterson and Peterson’s study, participants were immediately asked to count backwards in 3s from a large 3-digit number for different lengths of time.
This could have also led to what?

Answer 83

This could have also led to decreased recall

Question 84

Research for duration of the STM:

There is little research evidence considering what?

Answer 84

There is little research evidence considering the STM duration of other forms of stimuli

Question 85

Research for duration of the STM:

There is little research evidence considering the STM duration of other forms of stimuli, like what?

Answer 85

There is little research evidence considering the STM duration of other forms of stimuli, like visual images

Question 86

Acoustically

Answer 86

Acoustically is realting to:
1. Sound
Or,
2. The sense of hearing

Question 87

Research for duration of the STM:
One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay.
Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed.
An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974).
Reitman (1974) suggested that the brief duration of the STM is due to displacement.
The information in STM is displaced.
STM has a limited capacity and any new information will push out what is currently there.
Who (what year) found that if a number (called the what)

Answer 87

Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe)

Question 88

Research for duration of the STM:
One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay.
Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed.
An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974).
Reitman (1974) suggested that the brief duration of the STM is due to displacement.
The information in STM is displaced.
STM has a limited capacity and any new information will push out what is currently there.
Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe) occurred where?

Answer 88

Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe) occurred nearer the end of a list

Question 89

Research for duration of the STM:
One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay.
Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed.
An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974).
Reitman (1974) suggested that the brief duration of the STM is due to displacement.
The information in STM is displaced.
STM has a limited capacity and any new information will push out what is currently there.
Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe) occurred nearer the end of a list than where?

Answer 89

Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe) occurred nearer the end of a list than the beginning

Question 90

Research for duration of the STM:
One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay.
Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed.
An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974).
Reitman (1974) suggested that the brief duration of the STM is due to displacement.
The information in STM is displaced.
STM has a limited capacity and any new information will push out what is currently there.
Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe) occurred nearer the end of a list than the beginning, recall of what was what?

Answer 90

Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe) occurred nearer the end of a list than the beginning, recall of the next number was better

Question 91

Research for duration of the STM:
One explanation for why we forget things in STM is spontaneous decay.
Spontaneous decay is that the memory trace simply disappears if not rehearsed.
An alternative explanation was suggested by Reitman (1974).
Reitman (1974) suggested that the brief duration of the STM is due to displacement.
The information in STM is displaced.
STM has a limited capacity and any new information will push out what is currently there.
Waugh and Norman (1965) found that if a number (called the probe) occurred nearer the end of a list than the beginning, recall of the next number was better.
What does this suggest?

Answer 91

This suggests that later numbers had displaced earlier ones from the limited capacity STM store

Question 92

Who (what year) used the probe technique to assess what?

Answer 92

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the:
1. Displacement
2. Decay
theories

Question 93

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the displacement and decay theories, finding what?

Answer 93

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the:
1. Displacement
2. Decay
theories, finding that forgetting was less if numbers were presented faster

Question 94

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the displacement and decay theories, finding that forgetting was less if numbers were presented faster (less chance for what)?

Answer 94

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the:
1. Displacement
2. Decay
theories, finding that forgetting was less if numbers were presented faster (less chance for the information to decay)

Question 95

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the displacement and decay theories, finding that forgetting was less if numbers were presented faster (less chance for the information to decay), but also found that changing the probe’s position did what?

Answer 95

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the displacement and decay theories:
1. Finding that forgetting was less if numbers were presented faster (less chance for the information to decay)
,but also
2. Found that changing the probe’s position had a stronger effect

Question 96

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the displacement and decay theories, finding that forgetting was less if numbers were presented faster (less chance for the information to decay), but also found that changing the probe’s position had a stronger effect (doing what)?

Answer 96

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the displacement and decay theories:
1. Finding that forgetting was less if numbers were presented faster (less chance for the information to decay)
,but also
2. Found that changing the probe’s position had a stronger effect (affecting the chances for displacement to occur)

Question 97

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the displacement and decay theories, finding that forgetting was less if numbers were presented faster (less chance for the information to decay), but also found that changing the probe’s position had a stronger effect (affecting the chances for displacement to occur).
What does this indicate?

Answer 97

This indicates that both:
1. Displacement
2. Decay
cause forgetting in STM

Question 98

Shallice (1967) used the probe technique to assess both the displacement and decay theories, finding that forgetting was less if numbers were presented faster (less chance for the information to decay), but also found that changing the probe’s position had a stronger effect (affecting the chances for displacement to occur).
This indicates that both displacement and decay cause forgetting in STM, but that what is more important?

Answer 98

This indicates that both:
1. Displacement
2. Decay
cause forgetting in STM, but that displacement is more important

Question 99

Evaluation of the displacement theory:

Displacement can explain what?

Answer 99

Displacement can explain forgetting in STM

Question 100

Evaluation of the displacement theory:

Displacement can explain forgetting in STM, because the capacity of LTM is believed to be what?

Answer 100

Displacement can explain forgetting in STM, because the capacity of LTM is believed to be practically endless

Question 101

Evaluation of the displacement theory:
Displacement can explain forgetting in STM, because the capacity of LTM is believed to be practically endless, so it would therefore be impossible for LTM to be what?

Answer 101

Displacement can explain forgetting in STM, because the capacity of LTM is believed to be practically endless, so it would therefore be impossible for LTM to be ‘full’

Question 102

Evaluation of the displacement theory:
Displacement can explain forgetting in STM, because the capacity of LTM is believed to be practically endless, so it would therefore be impossible for LTM to be ‘full’ and allow what?

Answer 102

Displacement can explain forgetting in STM, because the capacity of LTM is believed to be practically endless, so it would therefore be impossible for LTM to:

1. Be ‘full’
2. Allow newer material to displace older material

Question 103

Research for coding in the STM:
Posner and Keele (1967) found that participants were faster in assessing that ‘A’ followed by ‘A’ was the same letter than when ‘A’ was followed by ‘a.’
Because the visual code differs when ‘A’ is followed by ‘a,’ the findings show that visual coding was occurring, which illustrates how codes other than the acoustic code occur in STM.
Although research shows that coding in STM is mainly acoustic, other sensory codes, such as visual, are used, too.
Indeed, some stimuli like faces or the smell of food would be difficult to code acoustically.
Example

Answer 103

For example, what would the sound of chocolate cake be?

Question 104

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.
Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks).
What is there evidence from?

Answer 104

There is evidence from brain scan studies

Question 105

According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which short-term memory and long-term memory differ.
Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term memory and long-term memory are different (4 marks).
There is evidence from brain scan studies, for example what?

Answer 105

There is evidence from brain scan studies, for example Squire (1992) found that:

1. The hippocampus is active in LTM tasks
2. Areas in the prefrontal cortex are active during STM tasks