The Influence of Culture and Media on Gender Roles

Question 1

Cross-cultural research:

Answer 1

Cross-cultural research: research into whether behaviour is universal (all men in cultures are aggressive e.g.) then we can propose biology is responsible. If there are differences, we can infer that there is some nurture influence.

Question 2

Cultural differences (nurture)

Answer 2

• One of the earliest cross-cultural studies of gender roles was carried out by Margaret Mead (1935) of cultural groups in Papua New Guinea.
• The Arapesh were gentle and responsive (like the stereotype of femininity).
• The Mundugumor were aggressive and hostile (like the stereotype of masculinity).
• The Tchambuli women were dominant, and they organised village life. Men were passive and considered to be ‘decorative’ (the reverse of the stereotype in industrialised societies).
• This suggests that there may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender, and that gender roles may be culturally determined.
• In her later work, Mead conceded that she had underestimated the universal nature of many gender-typical behaviours.
• However, she went on to argue that the extent to which innate behaviours are expressed is largely the result of cultural norms.

Question 3

Cultural similarities (nature)

Answer 3

• It is also the case that there are many cross-cultural similarities in gender roles.
• For example, David Buss (1995) found consistent patterns in mate preference (a kind of gender role behaviour) in 37 countries across all continents.
• In all cultures, women sought men who could offer wealth and resources, whilst men looked for youth and physical attractiveness in a potential partner.
• Also, a study by Robert Munroe and Ruth Munroe (1975) revealed that in most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines (with men typically the ‘breadwinners’ and women often the ‘nurturers”).

Question 4

Evaluation
research support

Answer 4

• The influence of culture on changing gender roles is supported by evidence.
• Geert Hofstede (2001) argues that in industrialised cultures the changing status and expectations of women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace and away from the domestic sphere.
• This has led to a breakdown of traditional stereotypes in advanced industrialised societies.
• In traditional societies women still occupy the role of housemaker as a result of social, cultural and religious pressures.
• This suggests that gender roles are very much determined by cultural context.

Question 5

eval
Mead’s research

Answer 5

• One limitation is that Mead’s cross-cultural research has since been criticised.
• Mead has been accused of making generalisations based on a short period of study.
• Derek Freeman (1983) conducted a follow-up study of people from Papua New Guinea after Mead’s investigation.
• He argued that Mead’s findings were flawed as she had been misled by some of her participants, and that her preconceptions of what she would find (western viewpoint) had influenced her reading of events.
• This is an example of both observer bias and ethnocentrism.
• This suggests that Mead’s interpretations may not have been objective and calls into question the conclusions that she drew.

Question 6

Nature or nurture?
eval

Answer 6

• Cross-cultural research makes a useful contribution to the nature-nurture debate.
• There is evidence of similarities in gender roles across cultures (e.g., Buss, Munroe and Munroe), suggesting that gender roles may be biologically determined (nature).
• However, other research (e.g., Mead), supports the idea that gender roles are culturally relative and vary from society to society. This suggests the opposite - that gender norms are transmitted within cultures through processes of observation and imitation (nurture).

Question 7

Media and gender roles

Answer 7

• The media provide role models with whom children may identify and want to imitate.
• As we have seen on the previous spread, children are likely to select role models who are the same gender as they are and who engage in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour (as this is more likely to be reinforced).

Question 8

Rigid stereotypes

Answer 8

• There is evidence that the media do provide very clear gender stereotypes that are quite rigid - men are independent, ambitious ‘advice-givers, whereas women are depicted as dependent, unambitious ‘advice -seekers” (Bussey and Bandura 1999).
• Similarly, a study of TV adverts by Adrian Furnham and Elena Farragher (2000) found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts whereas women were often seen occupying familial roles within domestic settings.
• This suggests that the media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning gender-appropriate behaviour.

Question 9

Self-efficacy

Answer 9

• The media does more than confirm gender-typical behaviour, it may also give information to men and women in terms of the likely success, or otherwise, of adopting these behaviours.
• Seeing other people perform gender-appropriate behaviours increases a child’s belief that they can carry out such behaviours in the future (self-efficacy).
• One study analysed the attitudes of people in India who had watched a programme designed to challenge deep-rooted gender stereotypes (Mitra et al. 2019).
• The programme (Adha-full) was a detective drama that ran for 78 episodes. Girls who watched the programme were more likely to see themselves as capable of working outside the home than non-viewers.
• This suggests their self-efficacy had changed as a result of media influence.