Social explanations gender development

Question 1

Social constructionism

Answer 1

• The social construction perspective argues that gender identity does not reflect underlying biological differences between people and, instead, these concepts are invented by societies.
• For individuals who experience gender dysphoria, the gender confusion arises because society forces people to be either a man or a woman - they must pick a side and act accordingly.
• From this perspective, gender dysphoria is not a pathological condition (as described within DSM) but a social phenomenon which arises when people are required to choose one of two paths.
• Martha McClintock (2015) cites the case of individuals with a genetic condition (S-alpha-reductase deficiency) in the Sambia of New Guinea.
• This causes some biological males to be categorised as girls at birth because they have a labium and a clitoris. At puberty their genitals change because of the large increase in testosterone - testes descend and the clitoris enlarges into a penis.
• This genetic variation is common among the Samba, and it was routinely accepted that some people are men.
• Some women, and others are kwolu-aatmwol- females-then-males. Since this culture has had contact with other cultures however, kwolu-aatmwol are now judged as having a pathological form of gender dysphoria.

Question 2

Psychoanalytic theory

Answer 2

• Lionel Ovesey and Ethel Person (1973) emphasise social relationships within the family as the cause of gender dysphoria.
• They argue that gender dysphoria in biological males is caused by a boy experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established. The boy fantasises of a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety, and the danger of separation is removed
• The consequence of this is that the boy, in a very real sense, becomes the mother and thus adopts a woman’s gender Identity.
• This theory has some support. Robert Stoller (1973) reports that, In GD biological males displayed overly close relationships with their mothers suggesting stronger female identification and thus conflicted gender identity in the long term.

Question 3

Operant conditioning

Answer 3

• Praising counter-stereotypical behaviour can lead to dysphoria

Question 4

Media

Answer 4

• Media influence and SLT plays its part.
• GD can be learnt by observation and imitation of cross-gender behaviour.