Basal Principles of Memory

Question 1

Early distinctions of Memory

• William James (1890) drew a distinction between primary and secondary memory
• Primary Memory
  
  • Portion of … space of time
  • Linked to conscious experience
  • Retrieval is …
• Secondary Memory
  
  • Genuine …
  • Unconscious - permanent
  • Retrieval is …

Answer 1

• William James (1890) drew a distinction between primary and secondary memory
• Primary Memory
  
  • Portion of present space of time
  • Linked to conscious experience
  • Retrieval is effortless
• Secondary Memory
  
  • Genuine past
  • Unconscious - permanent
  • Retrieval is effort

Question 2

Early distinctions of Memory

• William James (1890) drew a distinction between … and … memory
• .. Memory
  
  • Portion of present space of time
  • Linked to conscious experience
  • Retrieval is effortless
• … Memory
  
  • Genuine past
  • Unconscious - permanent
  • Retrieval is effort

Answer 2

• William James (1890) drew a distinction between primary and secondary memory
• Primary Memory
  
  • Portion of present space of time
  • Linked to conscious experience
  • Retrieval is effortless
• Secondary Memory
  
  • Genuine past
  • Unconscious - permanent
  • Retrieval is effort

Question 3

Atkinson & Shiffrin’s (1968) Modal model of memory

Answer 3

Question 4

Atkinson & Shiffrin’s (1968) Modal model of memory

Answer 4

Question 5

Sensory memory

• Sensations persist after the stimulus has …
• Subject to very rapid …
• Stores exist for … (iconic) and … (echoic) sensory information
• What is the capacity of these stores?
  
  • … experiments

Answer 5

• Sensations persist after the stimulus has disappeared
• Subject to very rapid decay
• Stores exist for visual (iconic) and auditory (echoic) sensory information
• What is the capacity of these stores?
  
  • ​Sperling’s experiments

Question 6

​Sperling’s experiments

Answer 6

Question 7

Working memory

• What is the short-term store for?
  
  • Some kind of “work space” to solve …
• … and … argued that working memory must comprise different components

Answer 7

• What is the short-term store for?
  
  • Some kind of “work space” to solve problems
• Baddeley and Hitch argued that working memory must comprise different components

Question 8

Baddeley (1986)

• Dual task:
• B is preceded by A — BA True/False
• A is not followed by B — BA True/False
• Performed while remembering strings of …
• Results:
  
  • Reasoning time increases in with digit load (consistent with unitary STS)
  • BUT, increase in reasoning time is modest
  • … rate does not increase at all

Answer 8

• Dual task:
• B is preceded by A — BA True/False
• A is not followed by B — BA True/False
• Performed while remembering strings of digits
• Results:
  
  • Reasoning time increases in with digit load (consistent with unitary STS)
  • BUT, increase in reasoning time is modest
  • Error rate does not increase at all

Question 9

Baddeley & Hitch’s (1974) working memory model

Answer 9

Question 10

Multicomponent model of working memory: (Baddeley and Hitch)

• 3 different components:
  
  • Visuo-… sketch pad
  • Central … - coordinated by this
  • … loop - sound

Answer 10

• 3 different components:
  
  • Visuo-spatial sketch pad
  • Central executive - coordinated by this
  • Phonological loop - sound

Question 11

Multicomponent model of working memory: (Baddeley and Hitch)

• 3 different components:
  
  • Visuo-spatial … pad
  • … executive - coordinated by this
  • Phonological loop - …

Answer 11

• 3 different components:
  
  • Visuo-spatial sketch pad
  • Central executive - coordinated by this
  • Phonological loop - sound

Question 12

Evidence for the phonological loop

• … … effect: Baddeley (1966)
• Presented lists of 5 words to write down in order
• List A: mad, cap, cat, map, cad - sound similar
• List B: pen, cow, bar, day, sup - same length, sound dissimilar
• List C: long, tall, wide, large, great - sound different, same meaning (semantically similar)
• List D: foul, strong, hot, old, deep - sound dissimilar and semantically dissimilar
• A - bad at recall B, C, D - quite good recall
• … … effect - coding used in the …-term memory store is based around the … of the word
• Word length effect:
• Baddeley et al., (1975)
• Presented lists of 5 words to write down in order
• List A: some, harm, bond, yield, hate - sound dissimilar but length of words change (single syllable)
• List B: 2 syllable
• List C: 3 syllable
• List D: 4 syllable
• List E: association, considerable, representative, individual, immediately
• Results: Correct recall related to number of syllables - Strong correlation between reading speed and correct recall
• … directly related to …
• Same effect found if number of syllables is the same but the lists are quicker to say:
• Bishop, wicket
• Friday, harpoon

Answer 12

• Phonological similarity effect: Baddeley (1966)
• Presented lists of 5 words to write down in order
• List A: mad, cap, cat, map, cad - sound similar
• List B: pen, cow, bar, day, sup - same length, sound dissimilar
• List C: long, tall, wide, large, great - sound different, same meaning (semantically similar)
• List D: foul, strong, hot, old, deep - sound dissimilar and semantically dissimilar
• A - bad at recall B, C, D - quite good recall
• Phonological similarity effect - coding used in the short-term memory store is based around the sound of the word
• Word length effect:
• Baddeley et al., (1975)
• Presented lists of 5 words to write down in order
• List A: some, harm, bond, yield, hate - sound dissimilar but length of words change (single syllable)
• List B: 2 syllable
• List C: 3 syllable
• List D: 4 syllable
• List E: association, considerable, representative, individual, immediately
• Results: Correct recall related to number of syllables - Strong correlation between reading speed and correct recall
• Performance directly related to syllable
• Same effect found if number of syllables is the same but the lists are quicker to say:
• Bishop, wicket
• Friday, harpoon

Question 13

A selective impairment to the phonological loop

• Several patients have been described who have severely reduced verbal spans (for all types of unconnected items)
  
  • Intact word …
• no problem with speech …

Answer 13

• Several patients have been described who have severely reduced verbal spans (for all types of unconnected items)
  
  • Intact word perception
• no problem with speech production

Question 14

Phonological loop - summary

• Acts like a … recorder for a limited time
• The contents are actively … by an articulatory process (sub-vocal speech)
• Disruption of this articulatory process (e.g. saying, “the… the… the…”) results in poor … in the phonological loop

Answer 14

• Acts like a tape recorder for a limited time
• The contents are actively refreshed by an articulatory process (sub-vocal speech)
• Disruption of this articulatory process (e.g. saying, “the… the… the…”) results in poor retention in the phonological loop

Question 15

Phonological loop - summary

• Acts like a tape recorder for a … time
• The contents are actively refreshed by an … process (sub-vocal speech)
• Disruption of this … process (e.g. saying, “the… the… the…”) results in … retention in the phonological loop

Answer 15

• Acts like a tape recorder for a limited time
• The contents are actively refreshed by an articulatory process (sub-vocal speech)
• Disruption of this articulatory process (e.g. saying, “the… the… the…”) results in poor retention in the phonological loop

Question 16

Other components of the model - Baddeley and Hitch

• … buffer added - area of research

Answer 16

• Episodic buffer added - area of research

Question 17

The visuospatial Sketchpad

• Necessary for holding online a sequence of visually guided …
• Also necessary for “… in the mind’s eye”

Answer 17

• Necessary for holding online a sequence of visually guided actions
• Also necessary for “seeing in the mind’s eye”

Question 18

Evidence for the visuospatial sketchpad

• De Renzi & Nichelli (1975) showed some patients with brain damage had impaired digit spans some had impaired … spans
• “Double …”; evidence for independent processes
• Subsequent research has shown that the visuospatial sketchpad can itself be divided (Logie, 1995)
• Visual cache – passively stores visual information about form and colour
• Inner scribe – stores spatial and movement information and can rehearse the contents of the visual cache
• Viewing … pictures interfered with the visual task, whereas tracing the outline of a series of pegs on a board interfered with the spatial task

Answer 18

• De Renzi & Nichelli (1975) showed some patients with brain damage had impaired digit spans some had impaired spatial spans
• “Double dissociation”; evidence for independent processes
• Subsequent research has shown that the visuospatial sketchpad can itself be divided (Logie, 1995)
• Visual cache – passively stores visual information about form and colour
• Inner scribe – stores spatial and movement information and can rehearse the contents of the visual cache
• Viewing abstract pictures interfered with the visual task, whereas tracing the outline of a series of pegs on a board interfered with the spatial task

Question 19

Evidence for the visuospatial sketchpad

• De Renzi & Nichelli (1975) showed some patients with brain … had impaired digit spans some had impaired spatial spans
• “Double dissociation”; evidence for independent processes
• Subsequent research has shown that the visuospatial sketchpad can itself be divided (Logie, 1995)
• Visual cache – passively stores visual information about form and colour
• Inner scribe – stores spatial and movement information and can rehearse the contents of the visual cache
• Viewing abstract pictures interfered with the … task, whereas tracing the outline of a series of pegs on a board interfered with the … task

Answer 19

• De Renzi & Nichelli (1975) showed some patients with brain damage had impaired digit spans some had impaired spatial spans
• “Double dissociation”; evidence for independent processes
• Subsequent research has shown that the visuospatial sketchpad can itself be divided (Logie, 1995)
• Visual cache – passively stores visual information about form and colour
• Inner scribe – stores spatial and movement information and can rehearse the contents of the visual cache
• Viewing abstract pictures interfered with the visual task, whereas tracing the outline of a series of pegs on a board interfered with the spatial task

Question 20

Encoding:

• repeated exposure is … …
  
  • Eg ask - Which is the correct American cent coin?
• People really … at giving this

Answer 20

• repeated exposure is not enough
• Which is the correct American cent coin?
• People really bad at giving this

Question 21

Encoding: levels of processing

• Craik & Lockhart (1972) introduced the concept of “levels of processing”

Answer 21

• Craik & Lockhart (1972) introduced the concept of “levels of processing”

Question 22

Encoding: levels of processing

• Craik & Lockhart (1972) introduced the concept of “levels of processing”

Answer 22

• Craik & Lockhart (1972) introduced the concept of “levels of processing”

Question 23

Encoding: levels of processing

• Participants asked to made judgments about words
• Is word in upper or lower case? (Orthographic)
• Does the word rhyme with hat? (Phonological)
• Does the word fit the sentence “The cat sat on the ….. ? (Semantic)
• Given a surprise memory test - Which one did they recall more, which in middle, which recalled least?

Answer 23

• Participants asked to made judgments about words
• Is word in upper or lower case?
• Does the word rhyme with hat?
• Does the word fit the sentence “The cat sat on the ….. ?
• Given a surprise memory test
  
  • Which one did they recall more - Semantic, which in middle - Phonological, which recalled least - Orthographic

Question 24

Encoding: levels of processing

• The approach has proved hugely influential
  
  • Downplays the importance of encoding as an … process - it is processing per se that leads to durable memories
  • Deep encoding or elaboration is one of the best ways to learn … material
• BUT the reasoning is … - is memory strong because encoding was “Deep” or do we infer that strong memories must have been “deeply encoded”?

Answer 24

• The approach has proved hugely influential
  
  • Downplays the importance of encoding as an independent process - it is processing per se that leads to durable memories
  • Deep encoding or elaboration is one of the best ways to learn new material
• BUT the reasoning is circular - is memory strong because encoding was “Deep” or do we infer that strong memories must have been “deeply encoded”?

Question 25

Encoding - study-test versus studying alone

• Roediger & Karpicke (2006)
• Students studied two passages of prose - Students were tested or restudied the passage
• Memory was tested after 5 mins, 2 days or 1 week
• Advantage for the study-test conditions after delay
• Note: no feedback was provided in the “test” conditions
• Conclusion
• Studying and then testing yourself leads to much … …
  
  • … practice effect

Answer 25

• Roediger & Karpicke (2006)
• Students studied two passages of prose - Students were tested or restudied the passage
• Memory was tested after 5 mins, 2 days or 1 week
• Advantage for the study-test conditions after delay
• Note: no feedback was provided in the “test” conditions
• Conclusion
• Studying and then testing yourself leads to much better retention
  
  • Retrieval practice effect

Question 26

Encoding and retrieval

• But “Levels of Processing” only addresses encoding
• Morris et al., 1977
  
  • 2 acquisition conditions
  • Semantic: “The _____ had a silver engine” “TRAIN”
  • Rhyme: “______ rhymes with legal” “EAGLE”
  • 2 test conditions
  • Standard recognition: have you seen this before?
  • Rhyming recognition: did you see a word that rhymes with this one before?
• Which one does better for semantic? which one better for rhyme?

Answer 26

• But “Levels of Processing” only addresses encoding
• Morris et al., 1977
  
  • 2 acquisition conditions
  • Semantic: “The _____ had a silver engine” “TRAIN”
  • Rhyme: “______ rhymes with legal” “EAGLE”
  • 2 test conditions
  • Standard recognition: have you seen this before?
  • Rhyming recognition: did you see a word that rhymes with this one before?
  • Which one does better for semantic? -standard recognition which one better for rhyme? - rhyme recognition

Question 27

Encoding and Retrieval - Godden & Baddeley (1975)

• … lists of words
  
  • On land or under sea
• … for words
  
  • On land or under sea
• “…” dependent memory

Answer 27

• Learnt lists of words
  
  • On land or under sea
• Tested for words
  
  • On land or under sea
• “Context” dependent memory