BIOCHEMISTRY (Nutrition ) Flashcards
Why do we use Vitamin C to treat Methemoglobinemia ?
-Methemoglobinemia is a condition where Fe2+ of hemoglobin is Fe3+ ,
therefore vitamin C will help absorb more Fe2+ and therefore lower the levels of methemoglobin and transform it into hemoglobin ++ ++
we need to refuce fe3 into Fe 2 to get absorbed and get Oxygen from tissues
if the patient had crohn disease , and had a terminal ileum resection , what vitamin he would not be able to absorb ?
Vitamin B12 (because cobalamin is absorbed by the ileum )
What are the water soluble vitamins ?
- Vitamins B and Vitamin C
-Vit B1 , B2 , B3, B5 , B7 , B9, B12
-Vit C is named ascorbic acid (deficiency of vitamin C is called Scurvy +++ )
-water soluble vitamins get absorbed into the blood and excreted rapidly from the urine (so low toxicity rate par rapport with fat soluble vitamins )
What are fat soluble vitamins ?
Remember the mnemonic ‘‘DrAKE ‘’ the artist drake without the R , so fat soluble vitamins are : -vit D , -Vit A , Vit K , Vit E
gamma carboxylation needed for vitamin K takes place in :
the Liver +++
(warfarin inhibit gamma carboxylation +++ )
deficiency in vitamin K means that :
-I bleed a lot when injury
(prolonged PT and PTT while bleeding time is normal because the platelets are normal )
what’s the name of vitamin E ?
-Tocopherol or tocopheral of tocopherol acid
vitamin E excess can work like what ?
it can work like warfarin and inhibit gamma carboxylation
so whenever you give warfarin , pay attention to the intake of vitamin E in your patients , and of course , pay attention to the INR and the treatment to detect any abnormalities ,
because vit K deficiency is hemorrhage , ( patients can have serious hemorrhages like brain +++)
is vitamin A teratogenic ???
Yes , it is teratogenic
Note : for the treatment of acne we prescribe vitamin A , but before prescription , patient should be any kind of birth pills and B HCG should be negative ++++ ( MEDICO-LEGAL )
nutrients are divided into macronutrients and micrronutrients :
-Macronutrients : -carbohydrates , protein - fat
-Micronutrients : vitamins and minerals
overdose of minerals and its effect on the kidneys ?
if overdose on minerals —-) damage to the kidneys (tubules ) specially trace minerals like zinc …..(renal tubular acidosis ,
but if overdose of vitamins , a lot of times , the kidney can handle it
what is organic chemistry ?
-it is the chemistry of carbon (vitamins in general contains carbon )
minerals don’t contain carbon
if i take double dose of vitamins ,my kidney canhandle it for the most part , but for minerals nooo
zinc deficiency
-taste problems
-smell problems
an importance difference betweem vitamins and minerals is :
-The ability of kidney to handle them +++
vitamins are well handled by kidneys more than minerals which are toxic for kidneys (specially for the tubules )–) AKI —-) dialysis
The difference between cofactors and coenzymes ?
-coenzymes help enzymes : vitamins
-cofactor are minerals
Name 3 substances that determine your natural skin colour ?
-Melanine
-Beta caroténe
-Hemoglobin
vitamin A : (retinol , retinal , retinoid acid )
-anti oxydant
-rhodopsin for rhods of the retina ( night vision )
note of zinc and vitamin A
Zinc deficiency can give vitamin A deficiency +++ because zinc enter in the chemicals of forming vitamin A
What are the 2 medications that should never being prescribed in women without pregnancy test ?
-Methotrexate
-Vita A medications (example isotretinoine for acne vulgaris )
they are teratogenic ( MEDICOLEGAL+++ )
and always ask for a pregnancy test and ensure women are on contraceptive methods +++++++
What is the vitamin that treats cancer ( leukemia ) ???
vitamin can treat cancer ++++
-Vitamin A
(it is the treatment for acute promyelocyte leukemia , t(15,17 )
note about carotene and vit A
carotene is transformed to active vitamin A in the liver ++++
what is the rome of Rhods ? (Rhods = batonnets )
they are efficient for night vision
so if abnormal or defficient —-) Nyctalopia
and that what’s happened with vitamin A deficiency because vitamin A help make Rhodopsin +++
excess vitamin A :
it can give symptoms of intracranial pressure (pseudotumor cerebri )
vit A and vit E :
vitamin E can help absorb vitamin A
question : How can we differentiate between jaundice and hypercarotenemia CLINICALLY ???
what does vitamin D deficiency called in infants and adults (2 names for the same disease ) ?
-Infants : Rickets
-Adults : Osteomalacia
D2 and D3 names :
-D2: Ergocalciferol
-D3 : Cholecalciferol
breast milk is deficient in :
-Vit D
-Vit K
-Iron
Methemoglobinemia :
Met : change
Hemoglobin
emia : blood
it means the change of hemoglobin in the blood
vit C helps in reducing this form because vit C elevate the absorption of iron in its active Fe2+ form and then it can change Fe3 in the methemoglobin —-) help in treating methemoglobinemia ++++
Bacteria in the gut make vitamin K , we can have vitamin K also from the diet +++
a fact about vitamin K : (K1,K2, K3 )
K1 and K2 : natural fat soluble vitamins
K3 :synthetic water-soluble vitamin (naphthoquinone )—) that’s why we give it Intramuscular in birth and it get excreted rapidly by the kidneys +++++(neonates gut is sterile so they have no vitamin K at first ++++ )
What’s the major dietary lipids ??
1-Triglycerides (pancreas breaks them into glycerol +FFA )
2-Cholesterol
3-Essential fatty acids
4-Fat soluble vitamins (D,A,K,E)
if i have a malabsorption syndrome , i will not be able to absorb them
the following neural regions are most likely abnormal in this patient with B12 deficiency ++
High-Yield Summary
Animal products and fortified foods are the only dietary sources of vitamin B12, which is absorbed primarily in the ileum. A vegan diet and Crohn disease are both risk factors.
The neurologic symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency are due to degeneration of dorsal columns, corticospinal tracts, and spinocerebellar tracts.
Vit B12 deficiency (usmle rx case correction )
This patient has multiple risk factors and signs of vitamin B12 deficiency. Vitamin B12 is naturally present in foods of animal origin, and fortified breakfast cereals and fortified nutritional yeasts are readily available sources of vitamin B12 that have high bioavailability. Vegans who specifically do not take supplements or fortified nutritional yeast are susceptible to deficiency. The patient also has Crohn disease, which commonly affects the terminal ileum, where vitamin B12-intrinsic factor is absorbed, making her very likely to be deficient in vitamin B12. Other possible risk factors for vitamin B12 deficiency include Helicobacter pylori or Diphyllobothrium latum infection, gastric bypass surgery, and poor dietary intake. The most prominent findings in vitamin B12 deficiency are glossitis (large, shiny tongue), macrocytic megaloblastic anemia with hypersegmented neutrophils, and neurologic findings including dementialike symptoms and ataxia.
Step 2: Disease Mechanism
The neurologic findings associated with vitamin B12 deficiency are due to the degeneration of neurons and myelin in the dorsal columns, lateral corticospinal tracts, and spinocerebellar tracts (see image).
A 57-year-old man is brought to the emergency department because of blurry vision, difficulty standing, and mental confusion. The patient’s companion says he is having difficulty remembering to do everyday tasks. On physical examination, the patient appears malnourished, and his gait is wide-based and unsteady. His abdomen is distended, and thin branching telangiectasias are noted. There is bilateral nystagmus on lateral gaze. A comprehensive metabolic panel shows:
Albumin: 1.8 g/dL
Total bilirubin: 3.2 mg/dL
Aspartate aminotransferase: 302 U/L
Alanine aminotransferase: 149 U/L
Alkaline phosphatase: 85 U/L
Which of the following neuropathologic findings are most consistent with this patient’s symptoms?
the symptomatology of this patient along with labs can lead us to think about :
-cirrhosis or hepatological situation that give a portal hypertension ( can explain the abdominal distension and telangiectasia en tete de méduse ) , also neurological findings in this patient can be related to hyper ammonemia ——) ammoniac is neuro toxic ++++
but what exactly the mechanism ? or where does ammonium deposit ? i don’t know —–) NOOOOT CORRECT FALSE UNDERSTANDING Of the clinical situation +++
Symmetric lesions in the mammillary bodies
Symmetric lesions in the mammillary bodies
63%
That’s Correct!
ScholarRxHigh-Yield Summary
Chronic alcohol dependency often leads to malnutrition and thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency. This may eventually result in the clinical syndromes of Wernicke encephalopathy and Korsakoff psychosis.
Wernicke encephalopathy is associated with symmetric damage to the mammillary bodies.
Step 1: Disease Diagnosis
This patient presents with several signs of chronic alcohol dependency, including malnutrition, ataxic gait (wide and unsteady), distended abdomen (indicative of ascites), and spider angiomata (thin branching telangiectasias). The patient’s lab elevated aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase levels are likely the result of hepatocyte damage due to chronic alcohol abuse. Low albumin may be seen in patients who are malnourished. Malnutrition in patients with chronic alcoholism can lead to deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) due to reduced intake and impaired liver storage and utilization. This can result in two clinical syndromes: Wernicke encephalopathy and Korsakoff psychosis. Wernicke encephalopathy manifests with the classic triad of confusion, ophthalmoplegia, and ataxia, which are all observed in this patient. Korsakoff psychosis (personality change, confabulation, and memory loss) is a late manifestation of Wernicke encephalopathy and is often irreversible.
Step 2: Disease Mechanism
Patients with Wernicke encephalopathy are commonly found to have symmetric lesions in the mammillary bodies.
The other choices are incorrect:
Atrophy of the caudate nucleus is seen in Huntington disease, which presents with chorea and dementia.
Depigmentation in the substantia nigra pars compacta is seen in Parkinson disease, which presents with bradykinesia.
Lesion of the subthalamic nucleus would cause hemiballismus, which presents with wild, uncontrolled flailing of the contralateral extremities.
Neurofibrillary tangles and widening of ventricles is characteristic of Alzheimer disease, which presents with progressive dementia.
case n3 :
A 72-year-old woman comes to the clinic because of a 3-month history of fatigue. She lives alone and, over the past 6 months, has been consuming a diet of mostly tea, bread, and cheese due to financial concerns. She does not drink alcohol or take any medications. On physical examination, there is conjunctival pallor. The rest of the physical examination discloses no abnormalities. Results of complete blood count show:
Hemoglobin: 8.7 g/dL
Hematocrit: 26%
Mean corpuscular volume: 113
Leukocytes: 7,000/mm3
Platelets: 140,000/mm3
Increased blood homocysteine
58%
That’s Correct!
ScholarRxHigh-Yield Summary
Folate deficiency causes macrocytic anemia.
Homocysteine levels are typically elevated in folate deficiency.
Step 1: Disease Diagnosis
This patient likely has folate deficiency, given her anemia (fatigue, pallor), high mean corpuscular volume (macrocytic anemia), and limited diet. This form of anemia can be due to folate or vitamin B12 deficiencies, liver disease, heavy alcohol use, hypothyroidism, and some antiretroviral drugs used for the treatment of HIV. In the absence of findings of liver disease (hepatomegaly, ascites, edema) or hypothyroidism (slow pulse, goiter), or the use of other medications, the most likely cause is a vitamin deficiency. This patient has a hematologic picture of megaloblastic anemia but lacks neurologic symptoms, suggesting a deficiency of folate rather than vitamin B12. Also, her limited diet includes cheese, which is rich in vitamin B12 but completely devoid of folate, suggesting folate deficiency as the most likely diagnosis. Unlike B12 deficiency, folate deficiency can present within months after removal of folate from the diet, whereas B12 deficiency takes years to develop because the body maintains B12 stores that are enough for about 3-5 years.
Step 2: Disease Mechanism
Folate deficiency results in increased homocysteine levels. This is because folate acts as a one-carbon carrier (5-methyl tetrahydrofolate [THF]) for methylation reactions, including the conversion of homocysteine to methionine. In this reaction, Vitamin B12 acts as a cofactor for the enzyme methionine synthase, and 5-methyl THF acts as the methyl donor. Folate deficiency halts this reaction and thus results in increased homocysteine levels. THF also donates a methyl group in the methylation of deoxyuridine monophosphate into deoxythymidine monophosphate, which is necessary for DNA synthesis. Folate deficiency thus results in reduced tetrahydrofolate and impaired DNA synthesis, which then halts replication without disturbing transcription, resulting in megaloblastic anemia (see figure).
note to know about B12 :
-Cheese is rich with vitamin B12
An 8-day-old boy is brought to the pediatrician’s office for a checkup. His mother reports that his gums bleed after breastfeeding, but he otherwise has been eating, stooling, and voiding well. He had an uncomplicated vaginal birth at 40 weeks at home. On examination, there is some mucosal bleeding on his gums and a small blood stain on the inside of his diaper around his umbilicus. Laboratory results show:
Prothrombin time: 40 sec
International normalized ratio: 2.1
Partial thromboplastin time: 55 sec
Which of the following is the most likely cause of this infant’s presentation?
Immature gut microbiome
50%
That’s Correct!
ScholarRxHigh-Yield Summary
A newborn, particularly after a home birth, presenting with mucosal, gastrointestinal, or intracranial bleeding along with elevated prothrombin time and partial thromboplastin time most likely has vitamin K deficiency. Newborns are typically given a supplemental injection of vitamin K in the hospital after birth.
Newborns are typically vitamin K deficient at birth due to immature gut microbiome, which is the primary source of vitamin K.
Step 1: Disease Diagnosis
This 8-day-old boy presents with bleeding in the setting of an increased prothrombin time, partial prothrombin time, and international normalized ratio. This presentation is most suggestive of vitamin K deficiency. Supplemental vitamin K injections are normally administered in hospital births to prevent hemorrhagic complications. Because this infant was born at home, he most likely did not receive vitamin K.
Step 2: Disease Mechanism
Vitamin K is produced by the gut microbiota. Because newborns have an immature gut microbiome, they do not produce adequate amounts of vitamin K. In addition, breast milk has low vitamin K content. Vitamin K is necessary for the production of factors X, IX, VII, and II and proteins C and S, which are important for the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways of the coagulation cascade. Deficiencies in these factors can be detected by increased prothrombin time and partial thromboplastin time, which assess the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways, respectively. Complications of vitamin K deficiency include intestinal, intracranial, and mucosal bleeding, which may lead to death. Because vitamin K (as well as A, D, and E) is fat-soluble, conditions resulting in decreased fat absorption are also risk factors for vitamin K deficiency.
case usmle RX :
A 3-day-old girl is brought to the emergency room by her mother after having a seizure. The patient was born at home at 37 weeks of gestation to a 28-year-old primigravida. The mother did not receive prenatal care. Physical examination reveals a small amount of dried blood around the umbilicus and areas of ecchymoses on the lower extremities. A cranial ultrasound shows blood in the right lateral ventricle. Laboratory studies are as follows:
Hemoglobin: 12.5 g/dL
Platelets: 200,000/mm3
Prothrombin time: 19 sec
Partial thromboplastin time: 47 sec
Bleeding time: 4 min
Stool guaiac test result: positive
Decreased action of which of the following underlies the patient’s most likely underlying condition?
γ-Carboxylation of glutamic acid
γ-Carboxylation of glutamic acid
62%
That’s Correct!
ScholarRxHigh-Yield Summary
A neonate who presents after a home birth with ecchymoses, intracranial hemorrhage, and bleeding from the umbilicus and gastrointestinal tract likely has vitamin K deficiency.
Vitamin K is necessary for the γ-carboxylation of glutamic acid residues on clotting factors II, VII, IX, and X and two anticoagulant glycoproteins, proteins C and S.
Step 1: Disease Diagnosis
This patient has a likely diagnosis of hemorrhagic disease of the newborn secondary to vitamin K deficiency, given the history of home birth, lack of prenatal care, and signs of increased bleeding (dried blood at umbilicus, ecchymoses, and positive stool guaiac test result suggesting gastrointestinal bleeding). The ultrasound demonstrates blood in the right lateral ventricle, which is consistent with intraventricular hemorrhage from germinal matrix bleeding (which caused the patient’s seizure). This diagnosis is further supported by the increased prothrombin time (PT) and partial thromboplastin time (PTT), with a normal bleeding time and normal platelet count. Because newborns do not have the intestinal flora that synthesizes most of the vitamin K in adults, infants born in U.S. hospitals are given an injection of this essential vitamin at birth.
Step 2: Disease Mechanism
Vitamin K is necessary for the γ-carboxylation of glutamic acid residues on clotting factors II, VII, IX, and X and two anticoagulant glycoproteins, proteins C and S. Because these clotting factors are part of both the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of the coagulation cascade, vitamin K deficiency causes prolongation of PT and PTT.
The other choices are incorrect:
The following do not describe a coagulation defect:
Decreased activity of lysyl hydroxylase describes scurvy, in which the lack of vitamin C (a necessary cofactor for lysyl hydroxylase) results in weakened collagen that manifests with increased bruising, poor wound healing, and swollen gums.
LFA-1 integrin defects result in leukocyte adhesion deficiency that manifests with recurrent bacterial infections and delayed separation of the umbilical cord.
Interleukin-8 is a neutrophil chemoattractant, and defects would cause problems with the innate immune response.
The following would have different coagulation profiles:
Deficiency of GPIb-IX-V complex results in Bernard-Soulier disease. It would show thrombocytopenia, increased bleeding time, normal PT, and normal PTT.
A decrease in ADAMTS13, an enzyme that cleaves von Willebrand factor, results in thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. It usually manifests with a normal PT and PTT, along with a classic pentad of fever, microangiopathic hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, renal dysfunction, and neurologic abnormalities.
Mnemonic to memorize fat-soluble vitamins :
-DrAKE without the r (D,A,K,E )
A 60-year-old woman with a history of type 2 diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, and hypertension comes to the clinic for follow-up care. Examination shows ankle edema. Serum studies show:
Creatinine: 4.7 mg/dL
Glucose: 320 mg/dL
Ca2+: 6.5 mg/dL
Phosphate: 6.0 mg/dL (normal: 2.8-4.5 mg/dL)
Parathyroid hormone (PTH): 672 pg/mL (normal: 10-55 pg/mL)
Which of the following best explains the abnormal serum studies in this patient?
Chronic kidney disease
71%
That’s Correct!
High-Yield Summary
Secondary hyperparathyroidism is a major complication of chronic renal disease and presents with hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia.
Step 1: Disease Diagnosis
This patient likely has secondary hyperparathyroidism due to chronic kidney disease (CKD). This is based on her elevated PTH in the setting of hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, and reduced renal function (high serum creatinine). The patient’s diabetes mellitus likely led to her CKD (diabetic nephropathy). A decreased glomerular filtration rate leads to increased serum creatinine and hyperphosphatemia (as both creatinine and phosphate are mainly filtered for excretion). The high phosphate reduces the circulating serum calcium by precipitation, leading to hypocalcemia. Lastly, the low calcium causes the parathyroid gland to oversecrete PTH, which stimulates bone reabsorption and over time causes renal bone disease (osteitis fibrosa cystica).
Homeostasis of Zinc :
-zinc is a mineral found in poultry , oysters , and fish
-absorbed in duodenum and jujenum
-Transferred via portal circulation to liver and stored in the liver
High yeald : Liver is the main organ involved in maintaining zinc homeostasis ++++
case usmle RX :
A 41-year-old woman reports months of worsening tingling in her feet. She has not traveled outside of New York City in the last 5 years and eats a balanced diet. She has no medical or surgical history. Physical examination reveals mild jaundice, and there is inflammation and a glazed, atrophic appearance of the tongue. Neurologic examination is significant for decreased vibration sense and decreased strength in the lower extremities. A peripheral blood smear is shown.
Autoantibodies against gastric epithelium
52%
That’s Correct!
ScholarRxHigh-Yield Summary
Vitamin B12 deficiency results in megaloblastic anemia, glossitis, and both motor and sensory symptoms (eg, paresthesia).
Pernicious anemia because of autoantibodies against gastric epithelium is the most common cause of vitamin B12 deficiency in patients without other risk factors.
Step 1: Disease Diagnosis
This patient has vitamin B12 deficiency, based on her paresthesias, glossitis, ineffective erythropoiesis causing hemolysis (with mild jaundice), and megaloblastic anemia with hypersegmented neutrophils on peripheral smear. Complete blood cell count would show anemia and high mean corpuscular volume. Causes include pernicious anemia, gastric atrophy, vegan diets, postgastrectomy malabsorption of vitamins, inflammatory bowel disease, pancreatic insufficiency, or tapeworm infection (in developing countries).
Step 2: Disease Mechanism
In patients without other risk factors, the most common cause of vitamin B12 deficiency is pernicious anemia, a disorder in which dietary vitamin B12 is not absorbed as a result of gastric parietal cell atrophy and the subsequent absence of intrinsic factor, a secreted protein required for vitamin B12 absorption. The disease occurs because of autoantibodies against gastric epithelium (parietal cells), and it is associated with other autoimmune disorders, such as thyroiditis.
Usmle Rx case :
A 4-year-old boy is brought to the pediatrician by his parents because of skin rashes that appear on sun-exposed areas and frequent episodes of diarrhea. On physical examination, the patient exhibits nystagmus, ataxia, and tremor. The child is noted to have delayed development. Urinalysis reveals higher-than-normal levels of certain amino acids and a deficiency of a water-soluble vitamin.
Abnormal metabolism or transport of which of the following amino acids characterizes the most likely diagnosis in this patient?
Tryptophan
56%
That’s Correct!
ScholarRxHigh-Yield Summary
Hartnup disease may present with photosensitive dermatitis, dementia, and diarrhea.
In Hartnup disease, the urinary and gastrointestinal systems poorly reabsorb the neutral amino acids due to a defective transporter. Loss of tryptophan leads to reduced niacin synthesis.
Step 1: Disease Diagnosis
A patient who presents at a young age with delayed development, an abnormal gait, tremor, nystagmus, sun-sensitive dermatitis, and diarrhea is likely to have Hartnup disease, a rare secondary form of pellagra (niacin deficiency). The symptoms of pellagra include dermatitis, dementia, and diarrhea; if untreated, it can result in death. The discoloration of the skin is similar to a sunburn and occurs on areas exposed to the sun.
Step 2: Disease Mechanism
Hartnup disease is caused by a defect in a specific transporter for neutral amino acids. This transporter is expressed in the renal tubules and gastrointestinal epithelium, and dysfunction results in decreased gastrointestinal absorption and decreased kidney reabsorption of neutral amino acids such as tryptophan. Tryptophan is a precursor for niacin synthesis in the liver. In patients with Hartnup disease, niacin deficiency occurs as a result of tryptophan deficiency. Other causes of niacin deficiency include malabsorption (eg, inflammatory bowel disease) and severe malnutrition, including patients with heavy alcohol use who may otherwise not eat balanced diets.
A 60-year-old woman comes to the physician because of chronic diarrhea and a skin rash that has been intensifying over the past 8 months. The rash worsens on sun exposure. The patient appears slightly confused and has trouble remembering what she did earlier in the day. Physical examination reveals the patient’s skin is discolored, as seen in the image.
Which of the following adverse effects is this patient most likely to experience if she is overtreated for her condition?
Facial flushing
57%
That’s Correct!
ScholarRxHigh-Yield Summary
The symptoms of niacin (vitamin B3) deficiency can be remembered with the four Ds: dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and death.
Excessive niacin supplementation can cause facial flushing, which can be prevented by pretreatment with aspirin.
Step 1: Disease Diagnosis
This patient presents with symptoms most consistent with pellagra, which occurs as a result of niacin (vitamin B3) deficiency. These symptoms include diarrhea, confusion, and an erythematous maculopapular rash on sun-exposed areas. The 4 D’s of niacin (vitamin B3) deficiency are Dermatitis, Diarrhea, Dementia, and Death.
Step 2: Drug Adverse Effects
Pellagra is treated with niacin (vitamin B3). Excessive niacin supplementation can cause facial flushing due to release of prostaglandins from dermal Langerhans cells, resulting in vasodilation. Facial flushing can be avoided if the patient is pretreated with antiprostaglandins, such as aspirin.
usmle rx case :
A 43-year-old woman visits her obstetrician for her scheduled checkup at 20 weeks of gestation. She has a history of hypertension and acne, both controlled with medication. Her obstetrician recommends that she have a series of screening tests. Her human chorionic gonadotropin, estriol, and inhibin levels are within normal limits, but her α-fetoprotein level is elevated.
Which of the following is the most likely cause of this patient’s abnormal laboratory value?
Inadequate folic acid intake
66%
That’s Correct!
ScholarRxHigh-Yield Summary
Elevated AFP levels in the amniotic fluid and maternal serum can be a sign of neural tube closure defects.
Folate deficiency can lead to neural tube defects.
Step 1: Disease Diagnosis
Screening tests in this patient reveal normal human chorionic gonadotropin, estriol, and inhibin levels but increased α-fetoprotein (AFP). An elevated AFP level in amniotic fluid and maternal serum may indicate a neural tube defect. Neural tube defects are caused by the failure of the neural tube to close (fourth week). The AFP level is elevated because it is leaking into the amniotic fluid from the spinal canal.
Step 2: Disease Risk Factors
Folic acid deficiency during pregnancy has been implicated in causing neural tube defects. Therefore inadequate folic acid intake is a possible cause of this patient’s elevated AFP level.
Vitamin B1 deficiency : ( thiamine deficiency )
-Beri beri (dry and wet beri beri )
due to a diet rich in white rice ++++
normally brown rice is nourished with B1 , but if we manifactured and transformed brown to white rice we will have deficiency in B1 ++++
beri beri ( dry and wet musical mnemonic )
-Dry : neuropathy
-wet : dilated cardiomyopathy
and let’s sing this babyy +++++
The best source of energy to the brain is :
-Glucose(come from carbohydrate )
A 43-year-old man comes to the clinic because of a painful rash on his forearms and neck, muscle weakness, and loose stools. He has a history of alcohol use disorder. On physical examination, the patient is agitated and disoriented. His tongue is enlarged and erythematous, and the affected skin appears thickened and hyperpigmented.
A deficiency in which of the following characterizes the most likely diagnosis in this patient?
Tryptophan
35%
That’s Correct!
ScholarRxHigh-Yield Summary
Patients with pellagra classically present with the triad of diarrhea, dementia, and dermatitis.
Pellagra can occur as a result of tryptophan or niacin deficiency.
Step 1: Disease Diagnosis
This patient most likely has niacin (vitamin B3) deficiency, also called “pellagra,” based on his presentation with a painful upper extremity rash, diarrhea, muscle weakness, enlarged and erythematous tongue, mental status changes, and history of alcohol use disorder (AUD). Individuals who are homeless or affected by AUD are at risk for developing dietary vitamin deficiencies. The symptoms of pellagra are classically described as the 3 Ds: Diarrhea, Dementia, and Dermatitis. Glossitis is another important symptom. Pellagra is an Italian word meaning “thickened skin,” which describes the hyperpigmentation on sun-exposed areas of the body (as seen in the image). The rash’s circumferential distribution in the C3/C4 dermatome is known as the “Casal necklace.”
Step 2: Disease Mechanism
Because niacin is derived from tryptophan, a decrease in tryptophan absorption or an increase in tryptophan metabolism results in pellagra. Niacin is an essential vitamin due to its roles as the building blocks in the production of NAD and NADP, which are cofactors that serve as oxidizing and reducing agents. Because these cofactors are required for metabolism of glucose and other metabolites, tissues throughout the body are affected. Primary pellagra results from a dietary deficiency in niacin or tryptophan itself, while secondary pellagra results from a preexisting condition that results in deficiency, such as anorexia nervosa, Crohn disease, or carcinoid syndrome.
A 35-year-old woman presents with fever, diarrhea, and right-lower-quadrant abdominal pain. She has had similar symptoms intermittently for 10 years. Pulse is 105/min, and respirations are 22/min. Physical examination reveals 4/5 strength bilaterally in the upper and lower extremities and diminished vibratory sensation in the feet. Laboratory tests show a WBC count of 12,000/mm3, a hemoglobin concentration of 9 g/dL, and a mean corpuscular volume of 112 fL.
Which of the following is most likely to be found on further workup?
Elevated methylmalonic acid level
66%
That’s Correct!
ScholarRxHigh-Yield Summary
Crohn disease may present with intermittent chronic abdominal pain and diarrhea and often affects the terminal ileum.
Vitamin B12 deficiency, a cause of megaloblastic anemia, is associated with a number of clinical and laboratory abnormalities, including fatigue and peripheral neuropathy.
Vitamin B12 deficiency is characterized by elevated levels of methylmalonic acid and homocysteine.
Step 1: Disease Diagnosis: Crohn Disease
The patient’s presentation consists of intermittent abdominal pain, diarrhea, and fever, suggestive of Crohn disease. Crohn disease often involves inflammation of the terminal ileum.
Step 2: Disease Diagnosis: Megaloblastic Anemia
The terminal ileum is the site of vitamin B12 absorption, and chronic terminal ileitis may lead to megaloblastic anemia (elevated mean corpuscular volume) resulting from vitamin B12 deficiency. Vitamin B12 deficiency is associated with a number of clinical and laboratory abnormalities, including fatigue and peripheral neuropathy presenting (as in this case) with tingling and numbness in the hands or feet, along with diminished vibratory sense.
Step 3: Disease Diagnosis: Methylmalonic Acid Level
Elevated levels of methylmalonic acid and homocysteine may be seen with vitamin B12 deficiency. Vitamin B12 is a coenzyme for methylmalonyl-coenzyme A (CoA) mutase, the enzyme that converts methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA. A deficiency in vitamin B12 will subsequently result in an elevated methylmalonic acid level. Vitamin B12 is also a coenzyme for the enzyme methyltransferase, which is responsible for the formation of methionine from homocysteine.
The other choices are incorrect.
The following are associated with anemia but not macrocytic anemia:
Markedly hypocellular bone marrow is characteristic of aplastic anemia, characterized by pancytopenia and typically a normocytic anemia.
Increase in hemoglobin A2 level is seen in β-thalassemia minor, which manifests with a hypochromic microcytic anemia.
A positive direct Coombs test is seen in warm antibody autoimmune hemolytic anemia, which is mediated by IgG autoantibodies that react with RBC surface antigens.
The following choice does not fit this patient’s presentation:
The patient does not have a clinical history indicative of dilated cardiomyopathy, which would present with fatigue, dyspnea on exertion, orthopnea, increasing edema, tachypnea, and tachycardia.
The remaining choice is the opposite of the expected laboratory value:
Vitamin B12 deficiency does not lead to a low homocysteine level but to an elevated homocysteine level.
2 causes of edema of nutritional origin ?
-Diminished protein intake (malnutrition , kwarshiorkor )
-Diminished vitamin B1 intake (wet beriberi )
Thiamine first , glucose second ++++
wernicke korsakoff syndrome
A 71-year-old woman is brought to the emergency department by her daughter because of fatigue, dizziness, and palpitations. For the past few months, her diet has consisted of small quantities of coffee, rice crackers, and jelly. Laboratory studies show hemoglobin of 10.9 g/dL, mean corpuscular volume of 105.9 fL, elevated homocysteine, and normal methylmalonic acid.
A defect in which mechanism characterizes the most likely diagnosis in this patient?
Transfer of methyl groups
53%
That’s Correct!
ScholarRxHigh-Yield Summary
Macrocytic anemia is characterized by generalized symptoms of anemia, low hemoglobin, and increased MCV.
Megaloblastic anemia, a type of macrocytic anemia, is often caused by folate deficiency, which is due to decreased intake of folate and can manifest within months.
The reduced form of folate functions as a cofactor in the transfer of methyl groups to homocysteine.
Step 1: Disease Diagnosis: Megaloblastic Anemia
The patient likely has megaloblastic anemia, due to the history of malnutrition; symptoms of fatigue, dizziness, and palpitations; and laboratory values demonstrating low hemoglobin, increased mean corpuscular volume (MCV), and increased homocysteine. A major classification of anemia is based on the RBC size: macrocytic (MCV >100 fL), normocytic (MCV 80-100 fL), or microcytic (MCV <80 fL). Because this patient’s RBCs show an MCV of 105.9, she has macrocytic anemia, and because homocysteine is elevated, it is specifically a megaloblastic anemia.
Step 2: Disease Diagnosis: Folate Deficiency
Megaloblastic anemia has two principal causes: vitamin B12 (cobalamin) deficiency and folate deficiency. This patient’s diet over the last few months lacks fruit, vegetables, meat, fish, and dairy, so her megaloblastic anemia is most likely due to vitamin deficiency. Compared with vitamin B12, body stores of folate are minimal and can be depleted within a few months if intake is inadequate. Leafy green vegetables are a natural source of folate. In vitamin-B12-deficient anemia, both homocysteine and methylmalonic acid levels are increased. In addition, vitamin B12 deficiency presents with neurologic symptoms such as weakness and peripheral neuropathy.
Step 3: Normal Structure/Function
The tetrahydrofolate form of folate (folic acid) functions as a cofactor in the transfer of methyl groups during DNA and RNA synthesis, specifically purine synthesis. Tetrahydrofolate supplies methyl groups that are used in the conversion of homocysteine to methionine.
The other choices are incorrect:
Glutathione synthesis is defective in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency and leads to a normocytic hemolytic anemia.
A defect in heme synthesis is often due to a lack of iron, and its deficiency can lead to microcytic anemia.
Cobalamin (vitamin B12) is required for isomerization of methylmalonyl-CoA. In addition to a macrocytic anemia, it would have an increased methylmalonic acid.
Defects in the synthesis of the spectrin-actin cytoskeleton, such as in hereditary spherocytosis, result in a hemolytic normocytic anemia.
Problems with the synthesis of β-globin chains can be caused by either β-thalassemia or sickle cell anemia. The anemia observed in β-thalassemia is microcytic, whereas that in sickle cell anemia is normocytic.
In the late 1990s, in an attempt to reduce the incidence of a specific category of birth defects, the US Food and Drug Administration mandated the supplementation of grain products with a coenzyme essential for nucleotide synthesis. This coenzyme is absorbed in the jejunum.
This chemical exerts its greatest effect on which of the following regions of the developing embryo?
Neural folds
62%
That’s Correct!
ScholarRxHigh-Yield Summary
Folic acid is a coenzyme for 1-carbon transfers giving rise to nucleotides.
Maternal deficiencies of folate may lead to neural tube defects, including anencephaly or spina bifida.
Step 1: Pharmacotherapy
The chemical is folic acid. Folate is absorbed by the jejunum and is a key cofactor for nucleotide synthesis because it is a 1-carbon donor as part of the synthesis of deoxythymidine monophosphate (d-TMP) and deoxyuridine monophosphate (d-UMP) using thymidylate synthetase. The US Food and Drug Administration mandated in 1998 that cereal grain products be fortified with folic acid to decrease neural tube defects (NTDs) because only one in three pregnant women was consuming enough folic acid in her diet at that time. Folate supplementation should be started prior to conception because closure of the neural folds occurs very early in pregnancy, roughly around 4 weeks.
Step 2: Disease Mechanism
NTDs are the result of a failure of the neural folds to close (see image), which can result from insufficient folic acid intake. The neural plate folds to become the neural tube, which has openings at either end known as the neuropores. Failure of the neuropore to close will result in NTD. However, even if all neuropores properly close, NTD may result from other abnormal embryogenic processes. Failure of the anterior neural folds to close leads to anencephaly, whereas failure of the posterior neural folds to close leads to various types of spina bifida, including occulta, meningocele, and meningomyelocele.
The other choices are incorrect as development of the midgut, notochord, metanephros, and mesonephric tubules are not affected by maternal folate deficiency.
what’s the relation between measles and Vitamin A deficiency ?
In developing countries where vitamin deficiencies are common, infections like measles can consume vitamins and worsen the symptoms of vitamin A deficiency, the most common cause of preventable childhood blindness worldwide. The vitamin A deficiency caused the girl’s keratomalacia (softening of the cornea) shown in the photograph. Vitamin A deficiency can also lead to night blindness, dry eyes and conjunctivae (keratoconjunctivitis sicca, which may lead to stinging, burning, and blurry vision), and gray plaques. Prolonged cases can result in development of corneal ulceration and necrosis, leading to perforation and blindness.
what’s the components of Fat molecule ?
a fat molecule is normally composed by :-Glycerol + Fatty acid
so when they enter to our body , they get cut to glycerol and fatty acids
if the combination (carbon ) happens once –) monoglyceride
if the combination happens twice —) Diglyceride
if the combination happens 3 times —) Triglyceride
Fatty acids :
there is :
-Saturated Fatty acids (no double bonds ) —) saturated with hydrogen bonds , packs well together , they are usually solid at room temperature .
-Unsaturated Fatty acids (double bonds ) ——) liquid at room temperature ( monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids )—-) Omega 3 , Omega 6 or Omega 9