Cardiovascular and Immune System Flashcards
1
Q
cardiovascular system
A
a closed circulatory system since the fluid contents are pumped from the heart throughout the body and back to the heart
2
Q
Atria
A
upper chambers of heart and receives blood
3
Q
Ventricles
A
lower chambers of heart and pumps blood out through the blood vessels
4
Q
Veins
A
carry blood back to the heart
5
Q
Capillaries
A
exchange materials with tissues
6
Q
Arteries
A
elastic, thick walled vessels which are capable of expanding to accommodate the larger blood volume flowing from the heart at the end of each heartbeat
7
Q
What are the three functions of the circulatory system?
A
- Transporting gases, nutrients and wastes throughout the body, 2. Clotting to prevent loss of blood from ruptured vessels 3. Fighting invasion of the body by foreign bodies.
8
Q
arterioles
A
small arteries that are constricted and dilated by muscles controlled by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system which increases or decreases the blood pressure, respectively.
9
Q
Peripheral resistance
A
Arterioles are the vessels primarily responsible for providing differing levels of “peripheral resistance” to blood flow (caused by varying blood pressure) depending on the conditions affecting the body
10
Q
how are capillaries formed?
A
The branching of arterioles causes the formation of even narrower tubes which are interconnected to form capillary beds
11
Q
what do capillaries do?
A
perform the exchange of materials with the cells of the body
12
Q
Venules
A
The blood is collected from the capillary beds by small veins called venules many of which join to form a vein which returns the blood to the heart.
13
Q
is the largest amount of blood in the arteries or the veins?
A
the veins
14
Q
Veins
A
thinner walled vessels which are under less pressure from the heart.
15
Q
describe the internal valves of veins
A
Veins have internal valves which open toward the heart and close at the end of a heart beat to prevent blood from flowing backward
16
Q
heart
A
a fist sized, cone-shaped muscular organ located in the mediastinal cavity (mediastinum) between the lungs and the diaphragm
17
Q
Mediastinal cavity
A
one of three cavities in the thoracic cavity. The mediastinum is home to the heart, trachea, great vessels, and some other structures.
18
Q
Myocardium
A
the bulk of the heart, composed mainly of cardiac muscle and is the layer that actually contracts.
19
Q
Pericardium
A
a tough, thick sac that encloses the heart, protects the heart and anchors it to the diaphragm.
20
Q
Endocardium
A
a white sheet of endothelium lining the heart which is continuous with the blood vessel linings.
21
Q
Septum
A
a partition separating the right and left chambers of the heart
22
Q
Auricles
A
muscular pouch on the upper surface of the atria
23
Q
Fossa ovalis
A
depression that marks the place of an opening between the atria that is present in all developing fetuses. It allows fetal blood to move directly from right to left atrium, bypassing the undeveloped lungs.
24
Q
tricuspid
A
the three flap valve that connects the right atria to the right ventriclethe three flap valve that connects the right atria to the right ventricle
25
bicuspid
aka mitral (two flap) valve that connects the left atria to the left ventricle
26
aortic semilunar valve
located at the exit from the left ventricle to prevent the flow of blood from the aorta back into the left ventricle.
27
pulmonary semilunar value
located at the exit from the right ventricle to prevent the flow of blood from the pulmonary artery back into the right ventricle.
28
pulmonary circuit
flow of blood from right atria going through lungs and ending in left atria
29
systemic circuit
flow of blood from left atria out to the body and coming back to the right atria
30
left and right coronary arteries
arise from base of the aorta and supply and nutrients to the heart tissues.
31
Systole
contraction of the ventricle heart chambers
32
Diastole
relaxation of the ventricle heart chambers
33
Sphygmomanometer
a blood pressure cuff that measures the amount of pressure required to stop the flow of blood through an artery
34
What is normal blood pressure?
120/80
35
Which of the two numbers in a blood pressure reading is systolic and which is diastolic?
top number is systolic and lower number is diastolic
36
Hypertension
the condition when the systolic and diastolic pressures are significantly higher than 120/80 mm Hg.. Hypertension is seen in individuals with kidney disease and also in individuals who have atherosclerosis, which is an accumulation of soft masses of fatty materials, particularly cholesterol, beneath the inner linings of arteries.
37
Angina pectoris
characterized by a radiating pain in the left arm which comes from a coronary artery being partially blocked with plaque
38
Streptokinase
a drug that can be given intravenously to dissolve a clot, it converts plasminogen, a molecule found in blood, into plasmin, an enzyme that dissolves blood clots
39
t-PA
a genetically engineered drug that converts plasminogen, a molecule found in blood, into plasmin, an enzyme that dissolves blood clots
40
angioplasty
a cardiologist threads a plastic tube into an artery of an arm or a leg and guides it through a major blood vessel toward the heart. When the tube reaches the region clogged by plaque in a coronary artery, the balloon attached to the end of the tube is inflated, forcing the vessel open.
41
coronary artery bypass surgery
During this operation, surgeons take a segment of another blood vessel from the patient's body and stitch one end of the aorta and the other end to a coronary artery past the point of obstruction. Once the heart is exposed, some physicians may also use lasers to open clogged coronary vessels.
42
plasma
the liquid portion of blood - one of two main portions of blood
43
formed elements
the "cells" of blood consisting of red and white cells and platelets
44
what is the difference between serum and plasma?
serum is identical to plasma except that the clotting proteins have been removed.
45
What is the most abundant cell in the blood?
Red Blood Cells
46
What is the medically correct term for red blood cells?
Erythrocytes
47
What are Red blood cells shaped like?
erythrocyte cells (red blood cells) are shaped like small bi-concave disks
48
What do red blood cells contain?
the protein hemoglobin
49
Approximately how many red blood cells are there in one mm of whole blood?
There are 4 million to 6 million red blood cells per mm of whole blood
50
Approximately how many hemoglobin molecules are in each red blood cell?
250 million hemoglobin molecules are in each red blood cell
51
what does Hemoglobin in the red blood cells do?
carries oxygen to the tissues of the body
52
What does Hemoglobin contain and how does that substance function to fulfill hemoglobin's purpose?
Hemoglobin contains an iron which combines loosely with oxygen, and in this way oxygen is carried in the blood.
53
Are white blood cells or red blood cells bigger?
White blood cells are bigger
54
Do white blood cells contain hemoglobin?
No - white blood cells do not contain hemoglobin
55
Is the nucleus in white blood cells larger or smaller than the nucleus of red blood cells?
larger
56
What is the medical term for white blood cells?
Leukocytes
57
describe "inflammatory reaction"
swelling
redness
pain
heat
58
when does "inflammatory reaction" happen and what causes it?
When microorganisms enter the body due to an injury, the response is called an inflammatory reaction.
This is due to an increase in blood flow to the injured site that helps to delivery immune cells.
The white blood cells can squeeze through the capillary wall and enter the tissue fluid, where they destroy foreign material.
59
what is pus?
The thick, yellowish fluid called pus contains a large proportion of dead white blood cells that have fought the infection.
60
What are the two types of white blood cells?
granulocytes and agranulocytes
61
What are the three types of granulocytes?
basophils
eosinophils
neutrophils
62
Which type of white blood cell is the most abundant?
Neutrophils
63
What responsibility do the Neutrophils have?
Fighting infections
| especially those involving bacteria
64
What method do Neutrophils use to destroy foreign invaders?
Phagocytosis
65
Describe the Neutrophils nucleus
Neutrophils have a multi-lobed nucleus
66
How do Neutrophils stain?
When stained, they have light pink granules in their cytoplasm
67
Eosinophils
granulocytes that respond to allergic reactions and parasitic infections. They are similar in appearance to neutrophils, except that their granules stain a darker/pink to red and are less commonly seen.
68
Basophils
the rarest of the granulocytes. They are involved in the release of histamines, a vasodilator, within tissues. Basophils have similar form and structure to neutrophils and eosinophils but the granules stain dark blue/purple
69
What are the two types of agranulocytes?
lymphocytes and monocytes
70
What are four types of Lymphocytes?
T cells
B cells
Natural Killer cells
Plasma cells
71
Name 3 Lymphocytes functions
attacking foreign cells
destroying body cells that have lost normal function
making antibodies
72
Are Lymphocyte cells larger or smaller than red blood cells?
larger
73
Are Lymphocyte cells generally smaller, generally larger, or generally about the same size as other white blood cells?
generally smaller than other white blood cells
74
Describe the size and color of the nucleus and the amount of cytoplasm of lymphocyte cells
lymphocytes have a large dark nucleus with little cytoplasm
75
What are the greatest phagocytes of all the blood cells?
Monocytes and macrophages
76
Describe the shape of the nucleus of a mono cyte
a "U" or kidney bean shaped nucleaus
77
What are Monocytes called after they move into the tissue?
macrophages
78
What do platelets result from?
fragmentation of megakaryocytes
| large cells found in the bone marrow
79
What are platelets involved in?
Platelets are involved in the process of blood clotting, or coagulation.
80
What else is involved in the blood clotting process?
Also necessary to the blood clotting process are fibrinogen and prothrombin, which are proteins manufactured by the liver and are free floating in the blood.
81
When a blood vessel in the body is damaged, what do platelets do?
platelets clump at the site of the puncture and partially seal the leak.
82
How do platelets seal the leak?
The platelets and the injured tissues release a clotting factor called prothrombin activator that converts prothrombin to thrombin. This reaction requires calcium ions (Ca+2) to occur. Thrombin, in turn, acts as an enzyme that severs two short amino acid chains from each fibrinogen molecule. These activated fragments then join end to end, forming long threads of fibrin. Fibrin threads wind around the platelet plug in the damaged area of the blood vessel and provide the framework for the clot. Red blood cells also are trapped within the fibrin threads; these cells make a clot appear red. A fibrin clot is present only temporarily. As soon as blood vessel repair is initiated, an enzyme called plasmin destroys the fibrin network and restores the fluidity of plasma.
83
What is the result of malfunctions or deficiencies in the cascade of the blood clotting process?
Malfunctions or deficiencies in this clotting cascade can lead to a variety of vascular diseases
84
Lymphatic vessels
extend to most sections of the body. Larger lymph vessels have check valves like cardiovascular veins which prevent the backward flow of lymph, the movement of which is caused by the squeezing action of skeletal muscles. The lymph flows one way, from the lymphatic capillary system to the subclavian veins. The lymph capillaries take up plasma fluid which, under great pressure, has been forced out of the capillaries of the circulatory system and has not been reabsorbed.
85
What is the result of malfunctions or deficiencies in the cascade of the blood clotting process?
Malfunctions or deficiencies in the clotting cascade can lead to a variety of vascular diseases
86
What parts of the body have lymphatic vessels?
lymphatic vessels extend to most sections of the body.
87
what do larger lymph vessels contain?
Larger lymph vessels have CHECK VALVES like cardiovascular veins which prevent the backward flow of lymph, the movement of which is caused by the squeezing action of skeletal muscles.
88
which ways does the lymph flow?
The lymph flows one way
89
the lymph flows from where to where?
from the lymphatic capillary system to the subclavian veins
90
where does lymph plasma fluid come from?
The lymph capillaries take up plasma fluid which, under great pressure, has been forced out of the capillaries of the circulatory system and has not been reabsorbed
91
what are the three lymphoid organs?
the lymph nodes
the spleen
the thymus gland
these are the major immune system organs.
92
how many lymph nodes does the body have and where are they found?
The body has hundreds of lymph nodes which are found at junctions of lymphatic vessels.
93
lymph node
encapsulated in a fibrous connective tissue with many incoming and fewer outgoing lymphatic vessels.
94
lymphocytes
rid the flowing lymph of infectious organisms and other debris located in areas called white pulp
95
macrophages
rid the flowing lymph of infectious organisms and other debris located in blood rich areas called red pulp
96
where is the spleen located?
the spleen is located in the upper left abdomen
97
what are the functions of the spleen?
extracts old or defective blood cells and platelets,
| removes debris, foreign matter, bacteria, viruses and toxins from the blood that flows through it.
98
What is the spleen encapsulated by?
The spleen is encapsulated in a thin, fragile fibrous connective tissue with an incoming splenic artery and an outgoing splenic vein.
99
What is the interior of the spleen divided into and what does it contain?
The interior of the spleen is divided into open spaces called lobules, containing lymphocytes (located in areas called white pulp) and macrophages (located in blood-rich areas called red pulp) which carry out the functions of the spleen.
100
where is the thymus gland located?
the thymus is located in the upper anterior (front) part of your chest directly behind your sternum and between your lungs
101
what two hormones does the thymus gland secrete and what do those secre tions do?
the thymus secretes thymosin and thymopeietin hormones which enable the T lymphocytes to mature and function as part of the immune system.
102
during what part of a human's life is the thymus prominent, when it is most active, and when does it stop growing, and when does it wither away?
The thymus is prominent in newborns, becoming larger during childhood (when it is most active), but growth stops during adolescence and the gland withers away to a mass of fibrous-fatty tissue by old age.
103
tonsils
a group of small lymphoid organs surrounding the throat which gather and destroy bacteria in inhaled air or food. The lymphoid tissue of the tonsils is invaginated by channels called crypts which trap bacteria and foreign matter. The bacteria then work their way into the lymphoid tissue where most are destroyed.
104
Where is the term immune derived from?
the Latin word meaning "safe".
105
What are the two types of immune responses?
specific and nonspecific
106
Nonspecific immune responses
prevent pathogens from entering the body and rapidly destroy any that do breach the surface. The skin is part of the nonspecific immune response system. Very few pathogens can penetrate the intact human skin. In addition, sweating actually produces an environment on which only "healthy" bacteria can grow. These beneficial bacteria produce lactic acid which inhibits pathogenic bacteria. Microorganisms entering the stomach are often destroyed by stomach acids and secretions, and those entering the respiratory system are often trapped by mucus.
107
cytokines
they circulate within the blood - a large group of peptides and proteins that include interferons and interleukins
108
Interferons
inhibit viral replication and activate natural killer cells (NK), a lymphocyte. NK cells originate in the bone marrow and are highly effective against tumor cells. Psychological stressors are thought to decrease NK cell activity which can enhance the growth of tumors.
109
Interleukins
during infection interleukins can reset the body's thermostat in the hypothalamus to create a fever. Fever helps the body fight infection by interfering with the growth and replication of some pathogens. Fever also causes lysosomes to break down. The lysosomes release digestive enzymes that can destroy a cell infected by a virus. In addition, fever can promote the activity of certain white blood cells. Low fevers of fairly short duration can be necessary for recovery.
110
Do specific or nonspecific immune responses act more quickly?
Non specific act fairly quickly. Specific immune responses take several days to activate but are extremely effective.
111
What are the main two types of lymphocytes involved in specific immune responses?
T cells
| B cells
112
B Cells
Millions of B cells are produced in the bone marrow daily. Each B cell is genetically programmed to produce a glycoprotein receptor as part of its cell coat. That receptor binds with a specific type of antigen. B cells are activated when an antigen binds with its receptor. Once activated, the B cell begins to rapidly divide. Each of the new cells can produce antibody
113
Antigen
any molecule which can be specifically recognized as foreign by the immune system.
114
Antibody
a substance that binds with the antigen and targets it for destruction
115
Memory B cells
continue to produce a small amount of antibody after the infection is over.
116
Where do T cells originate and where do they mature?
T cells originate in bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland
117
What do T cells contain?
T cells contain specific antigen receptors
118
Killer T cells
recognize and destroy invading cells containing foreign antigens. Killer T cells attack virus infected cells, cancer cells and tissue grafts by releasing cytokines and enzymes which lyse the cell.
119
Helper T cells
secrete substances that activate or enhance immune responses. B cells require an interaction with helper T cells before they can begin rapid division.
120
allergic reactions
antibodies are produced against mild antigens called allergens. These allergens are typically common environmental factors such as pollen or dust mites. Many people that display allergies have some type of genetic pre disposition to this type of reaction.
121
Allergens
mild antigens such as pollen or dust mites
122
autoimmune disease
life threatening immune response when lymphocytes launch an attack against a person's own body. Results when antibodies and T cells attack the body's own tissues.
123
List the two systems within the human circulatory system and their functions
The human circulatory system contains the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular system functions to transport gases, nutrients, and wastes throughout the body, prevent loss of blood from ruptured vessels, and fight invasion of the body by foreign bodies. The lymphatic system has three main functions: lymphatic vessels take up excess tissue fluid and return it to the bloodstream; lymphatic capillaries absorb fats and transport them to the bloodstream; and the lymphatic system helps to defend the body against disease.
124
List and describe the different types of vessels within the human cardiovascular system
Arteries are elastic, thick-walled vessels which are capable of expanding to accommodate the larger blood volume flowing from the heart at the end of each heartbeat. Small arteries called arterioles are constricted and dilated by muscles controlled by the nervous system which increases or decreases the blood pressure respectively. The branching of arterioles causes formation of even narrower tubes called capillaries which are interconnected to form capillary beds which perform the exchange of materials with the cells of the body. The blood is collected from the capillary beds by small veins called venules many of which join to form a vein which returns the blood to the heart. Veins are thinner-walled vessels with internal valves which open toward the heart and close at the end of a heart beat to prevent blood from flowing backward.
125
Describe the human heart
The heart is a fist-sized cone-shaped muscular organ located between the lungs. The bulk of the heart, called the myocardium, composed mainly of cardiac muscle is the layer that actually contracts. The myocardium muscle fibers are highly branched and are attached by collagen connective tissue fibers which link all parts of the heart together. The heart is enclosed in a tough, thick sac called the pericardium which protects the heart and anchors it to the diaphragm. The inner and outer layers of the pericardium are covered by a smooth layer of endothelium. A special lubricating fluid between the layers allows the heart to slide around with very little friction. The heart is lined with a white sheet of endothelium called the endocardium which is continuous with the blood vessel linings. The heart has four chambers separated into a right and left set by a partition called the septum. The two upper receiving chambers are called the atria (auricles); the two lower pumping (sending) chambers are called the ventricles. The atria are smaller and not as muscular as the ventricles which must force the blood through vessels to distant parts of the body. The blood flow is also controlled by four valves, two between the atria and the ventricles and two at the vessel exits from the ventricles. These valves assure that the blood flows forward from vessels into the atria, then into the ventricles and then out of the ventricles. The tricuspid (three-flap) valve connects the right atria to the right ventricle and the bicuspid (mitral) valve connects the left atria to the left ventricle. The aortic (left) and pulmonary (right) semilunar valves, located at the exits from the ventricles prevent the flow of blood from the vessels back into the ventricles.
126
Know the flow of blood in the pulmonary circuit and in the systemic circuit
Blood follows a path which can best be described as it returns (in a deoxygenated form) from the cells of the body entering the heart into the right atrium by way of veins called the inferior and superior vena cavae. From the right atrium blood flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle which pumps the blood through the pulmonary valve through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. After the blood is oxygenated in the capillary bed of the lungs (also losing its carbon dioxide), it is carried by the pulmonary veins to the heart entering the left atrium. This is the pulmonary circuit. This oxygenated blood flows through the bicuspid/mitral valve into the left ventricle which pumps it through the aortic valve into the aorta (the largest vessel in the body) which carries it to capillary beds of the systemic trunk, supplying the cells of all body tissue with oxygen and nutrients. Deoxygenated blood is then returned to the right atrium through the vena cavae which completes the circuit. This is the systemic circuit.
127
Describe the events that make up the human heartbeat
The terms systole refers to contraction of heart chambers and the word diastole refers to relaxation of these chambers. Each heartbeat, or cardiac cycle, consists of the following phases: (1) the atria contract for about 0.15 second (while the ventricles relax), (2) the ventricles contract for about 0.30 second (while the atria relax), and (3) all chambers relax for about 0.40 second. The short systole of the atria is understandable since the atria send blood only into the ventricles, but the ventricles pump blood into the much larger systemic or pulmonary circulatory circuits. When the heart beats, the familiar lub-dup sound is heard as the valves of the heart close.
128
What is Thrombus
a stationary blood clot is called a thrombus. It can result from plaque building up on artery walls.
129
What is Embolus?
if a blood clot dislodges and moves along with blood it is called an embolus.
130
What is Streptokinase?
a drug that can be given intravenously to dissolve a clot, it converts plasminogen, a molecule found in blood, into plasmin, an enzyme that dissolves blood clots.
131
What is Angioplasty?
Surgical procedures are also available to clear clogged arteries. In angioplasty, a cardiologist threads a plastic tube into an artery of an arm or a leg and guides it through a major blood vessel toward the heart. When the tube reaches the region clogged by plaque in a coronary artery, the balloon attached to the end of the tube is inflated, forcing the vessel open.
132
Describe the composition of blood, listing the function of each component
Blood has two main portions: the liquid portion, called plasma, and the formed elements consisting of red and white cells and platelets. Plasma buffers the blood, keeping the pH near 7.4. Red blood cells (erythrocytes) contain the iron-rich protein hemoglobin which combines loosely with oxygen to carry it in the blood. Red blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow and are destroyed in the liver and spleen. White blood cells (leukocytes) squeeze through the capillary wall and enter the tissue fluid, where they destroy foreign material. Platelets are involved in the process of blood clotting. As the platelets "clump" at the site injury, they activate the formation of fibrin threads, which, intertwined with red blood cells, form the framework for the clot.
133
Describe the major components of the ECG and the movement of an electrical impulse through the heart
The electrical impulse begins at the SA node (sinoatrial node) found in the right atrium. The SA node is known as the "pacemaker" of the heart. The impulse spreads through the atria creating atrial systole. The impulse then travels through the AV node into the bundle of His. From there, the impulse continues to travel towards the ventricular apex. Finally, it travels through the Purkinje fibers to the myocardium.
134
ECG device
The ECG is a device used to measure electrical impulses in the heart. Atrial depolarization and atrial systole are denoted as the P-wave. Ventricular depolarization and ventricular systole are denoted as the QRS complex. Ventricular repolarization and ventricular diastole are denoted as a T-wave. There is no way to note the repolarization of the atria. Its activity is lost within the QRS complex.
135
Be familiar with the cells involved with specific immunity
The main lymphocytes involved in specific immune responses are the T cells and the B cells. Millions of B cells are produced in the bone marrow daily. Each B cell is genetically programmed to produce a glycoprotein receptor as part of its cell coat. That receptor binds with a specific type of antigen. An antigen is any molecule which can be specifically recognized as foreign by the immune system. B cells are activated when an antigen binds with its receptor. Once activated, the B cell begins to rapidly divide. Each of the new cells can produce antibody, which is a soluble form of the glycoprotein receptor from the B cell's surface. As this antibody is released, it binds to the invading antigen either rendering it inactive or causing its destruction through interaction with phagocytes. Some activated B cells become memory B cells which continue to produce a small amount of antibody after the infection is over. If the same pathogen enters the body again, the antibody immediately binds with the antigen and targets it for destruction.
