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chapter 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

do genes have an impact on behaviour?

A

yes they do

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2
Q

what are genes?

A

the basic units of heredity: genes are responsible for guiding the process of creating the proteins that make up our physical structures and regulate development and physiological process throughout the lifespan

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3
Q

what are genes composed up?

A

DNA

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4
Q

what is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)?

A

a molecule formed in a double-helix shape that contains four nucleotides: adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine

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5
Q

what is a genotype?

A

the genetic make up of an organism- the unique set of genes that comprises that individuals genetic code

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6
Q

what is a phenotype?

A

the physical traits and behavioural characteristics that show genetic variation, such as eye colour, the shape and size of facial features, intelligence and even personality

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7
Q

how many sets of chromosomes do humans have?

A

23

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8
Q

what is a chromosome?

A

structures in the cellular nucleus that are lines with all of the genes an individual inherits

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9
Q

what does homozygous mean?

A

if two corresponding genes at a given location on a pair of chromosomes are the same (X,X)

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10
Q

what does heterozygous mean?

A

if two corresponding genes at a given location on a pair of chromosomes differ

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11
Q

what are behavioural genomics?

A

the study of DNA and the ways in which specific genes are related to behaviour

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12
Q

what is the human genome project?

A

a massive effort to identify the components of the entire human genome

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13
Q

how are traits inherited?

A

normally it needs to be more than one gene that provides that trait

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14
Q

what behavioural genetics?

A

the study of how genes and the environment influence behaviour

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15
Q

what do twins present for how genes influence behaviour?

A

they present a great opportunity to research how genes influence behaviour

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16
Q

what are the 2 types if twins?

A

monozygotic twins
dizygotic twins

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17
Q

what are monozygotic twins?

A

twins that come a single ovum (egg), which makes them genetically identical (almost 100% genetic similarity)

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18
Q

what are dizygotic twins?

A

twins that come from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm cells that share the same womb; these twins have approximately 50% of their genes in common

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19
Q

what do behavioural geneticists use twin studies to calculate?

A

heritability

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20
Q

what is heritability?

A

a statistic, expressed as a number between zero and one, that represents the degree to which genetic differences among individuals contribute to individuals differences in a behaviour or trait found in a population

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21
Q

what does it mean if there is a heritability score of 0?

A

genes do not contribute to individual differences in a trait

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22
Q

what does it mean if there is a heritability score of 1?

A

genes account for all individual differences in a trait

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23
Q

does heritability tell us how much genes contribute to the trait?

A

no, it only tells us the degree to which genes explain the differences among people with that trait

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24
Q

what is gene expression?

A

occurs when the information in our genes is used to produce proteins or other gene products

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25
Q

how long does gene expression occur for?

A

it is a lifelong process

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26
Q

what are some implications of a lack of gene expression?

A

people may be at a greater risk for developing brain related disorders

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27
Q

what is epigenetics?

A

changes in gene expression that occur as a result of experience and that do not alter the genetic code

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28
Q

what is CRISPER-cas9?

A

a technique that allows genetic material to be removed, added or altered in specific locations of the genome

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29
Q

how to scientists use CRISPR-cas9?

A

they can use it to study and potentially fun a number of genetic disorders, including the genes related to several diseases that target the brain like Parkinson’s and Alzheimers

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30
Q

what is the ethical issue with using CRISPR-cas9 to alter genes?

A

it is still very new and we don’t know much about it so there can be side effects and procedures done wrong

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31
Q

what is evolution?

A

the change in the frequency of genes occurring in an interbreeding population over generations

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32
Q

what is evolutionary psychology?

A

attempts to explain human behaviours base don the beneficial functions they may have served in our species evolutionary history

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33
Q

why do evolutionary psychologists hypothesize that male and female brains are different?

A

because males and females have had to solve a different set of problems in order to survive and reproduce

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34
Q

what do the male and female brain excel at in evolutionary process?

A

male: have good spatial skills and form mental maps

females: have a good memory for the location of objects

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35
Q

what is the hunter-gatherer theory?

A

it explicitly links performance on specific tasks to the different roles performed by males and females over the course of evolutionary history

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36
Q

what results did the tests on sex differences with spatial memory?

A

males are better on mental rotation and females are on tests of spatial location

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37
Q

is there already variability with the differences in male vs female spatial location tasks and mental location tasks?

A

yes it is better to think of these sex differences in terms of overlapping curves whose average scores differ slightly rather than one sex bing superior to the other on that cognitive ability

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38
Q

can culture cause a difference in male VS female tests of mental rotation and spatial location?

A

yes, some cultures have very strict sex roles that could influence education and abilities of males and females

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39
Q

are these differences in mental rotation and spatial rotation between male and female very large in the modern day?

A

no the differences are very small

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40
Q

what type of cells are scientists most interested in?

A

neurons

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41
Q

what are neurons?

A

one of the major types of cells found in the nervous system, which are responsible for sending and receiving messages throughout the body

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42
Q

what is neural communication?

A

the billions of cells that receive and transmit messages everyday to help humans function

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43
Q

what is the primary purpose of the neuron?

A

the recipe input from one group of neurons and then influence the activity of other neurons, this leads to form some behaviour

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44
Q

what is a cell body?

A

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus that houses the cells genetic material

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45
Q

what are dendrites?

A

small branches radiating from the cell body that receive messages from other cells and transmit those messages towards the rest of the cell

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46
Q

what are neurotransmitters?

A

the chemicals that function as messengers allowing neurons to communicate with eachother

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47
Q

what are the 2 types of neurons?

A

sensory neurons
motor neurons

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48
Q

what are sensory and motor neurons?

A

sensory neurons: recieves information from the Bodily senses and bring it towards the brain

motor neurons: carry messages away from the brain and the spinal cord and towards muscles in order to control their flexion and extension

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49
Q

what are glial cells?

A

specialized cells of the nervous system that are involved in mounting immune responses in the brain, removing waste and synchronizing the activity of the billions of neurons that constitute the nervous system (acts as the glue for the nervous system)

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50
Q

what is the estimated ratio of glial cells to neurons?

A

10 to 1

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51
Q

what is myelin?

A

a fatty sheath that insulates axons from one another, resulting in speed and efficiency of neural communications

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52
Q

if the myelin is damaged, how can that impact your neurons and brain?

A

the efficiency of the axon decreases substantially and can lead to a number of impairments such as multiple sclerosis

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53
Q

what is neurogenisis?

A

the formation of new nuerons in a limited number of brain regions, particularly in the hippocampus, a region critical for learning and memory

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54
Q

what are stem cells?

A

a unique type of cell that does not have a predestined function

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55
Q

what is resting potential?

A

the relatively stable state during which the cell is not transmitting messages

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56
Q

what is action potential?

A

a wave if electrical activity that originates at the beginning of the axon near the cell body and rapidly travels down its length

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57
Q

what releases neurotransmitters in to the postsynaptic neuron so they can bind?

A

the presynaptic neuron

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58
Q

what is a synaptic cleft?

A

the minute space between the axon terminal and the dendrite

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59
Q

what is reuptake?

A

a process whereby neurotransmitter molecules that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron

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60
Q

what are the 6 types of neurotransmitters?

A

glutamate
GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)
acetylcholine
dopamine
norepinephrine
serotonin

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61
Q

what are the major functions of glutamate?

A

excites nervous system; memory and automatic nervous system reactions

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62
Q

what are the major functions of GABA?

A

inhibits brain activity; lowers arousal, anxiety and excitation; facilitates sleep

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63
Q

what are the major functions of acetylcholine?

A

movement; attention

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64
Q

what are the major functions of dopamine?

A

control of movement; reward seeking behaviour; cognition and attention

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65
Q

what are the major functions of norepinephrine?

A

memory; attention to new or important stimuli; regulation of sleep and mood

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66
Q

what are the major functions of serotonin?

A

regulation of sleep, appetite and mood

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67
Q

what are agonists?

A

drugs that enhance or mimic the effects of a neurotransmitters actions

68
Q

what is an example of an agonists?

A

nicotine acts as a agonists of acetylcholine

69
Q

how do agonists work?

A

they bind to that neurotransmitters receptors at the postsynaptic cells

70
Q

what are antagonists?

A

drugs that inhibit neurotransmitter activity by blocking receptors pr preventing synthesis of a neurotransmitter

71
Q

what is an example of antagonists?

A

botox

72
Q

what are hormones?

A

chemicals secreted by the glands of the endocrine system

73
Q

what is the difference in how neurotransmitters and hormones work?

A

neurotransmitters: they work almost immediately within the microscopic space of the synapse

hormones: they are secreted into the bloodstream and travel throughout the body

74
Q

what is homeostasis?

A

the balance of energy, metabolism, body temperature and other basic functions that keeps the body working

75
Q

what is the hypothalamus?

A

a brain structure that regulates basic biological needs and motivational systems

76
Q

what does the hypothalamus release?

A

specialized chemicals called releasing factors that simulate the the pituitary gland

77
Q

what is the pituitary gland?

A

the master gland of the endocrine system that produces hormones and sends commands about hormone production to the other glands of the endocrine system

78
Q

what are the adrenal glands?

A

a pair of endocrine glands located adjacent to the kidneys that release stress hormones such as cortisol and epinephrine

79
Q

what are endorphins?

A

hormones produced by the pituitary gland that function to reduce pain and induce feelings of pleasure

80
Q

how does morphine relate to endorphins?

A

because it binds to endorphin receptors and reproduce the same painkilling and euphoric effect

81
Q

what is testosterone?

A

a hormone that serves multiple functions including driving physical and sexual development over the long term

82
Q

does testosterone cause aggression?

A

yes that is what causes men to be more aggressive than men

83
Q

what do further studies into testosterone and aggression tell us?

A

it causes social aggression specifically rather than non-social forms of aggression

84
Q

what are some examples of social aggression?

A

wanting to have a certain social status

dominance

85
Q

in a study it showed, what spiked, when their was a threat to their social status?

A

a study with humans showed that activities ranging from wrestling to chess and tennis both raised testosterone, and caused higher testosterone in the winners vs the losers, reinforcing the idea that there is a link between testosterone and social dominance

86
Q

what is a worry with these studies linking testosterone to social dominance?

A

that they are correlational

87
Q

how does testosterone impact social bonding?

A

it promotes behaviours that decreases social bonding ,like mimicking facial expression, and making them more aggressive in their responses

88
Q

why is it relevant that testosterone is linked with social aggression?

A

because evolutionary humans would have needed testosterone to be more socially aggressive to get more food and be more likely to survive

89
Q

what are the 2 divisions of the nervous system?

A

the central nervous system

the peripheral nervous system

90
Q

what is the central nervous system?

A

consists of the brain and the spinal cord

91
Q

what are the 2 parts of the central nervous system?

A

the brain
the spinal cord

92
Q

what is the brain responsible for?

A

storing limitless information about your personality, preferences, memories and conscious awareness

93
Q

what does the spinal cord do?

A

the spinal cord receives information from the brain and stimulates nerves that extend out into the body, this stimulation produces movement

94
Q

what is the peripheral nervous system?

A

a division of the nervous system that transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body

95
Q

what are the 2 subcomponents of the peripheral nervous system?

A

the somatic nervous system

the autonomic nervous system

96
Q

that is the somatic nervous system?

A

consists of nerves that control skeletal muscles, which are responsible for voluntary and reflexive movement and consists of nerves that receive sensory input from the body

97
Q

what are some behaviours performed by the somatic nervous system?

A

ant voluntary behaviour such as coordinating the movements needed to reach, walk or move a computer mouse

98
Q

what is the autonomic nervous system?

A

the portion of the peripheral nervous system responsible for regulating the activity of organs and glands

99
Q

what are some behaviours the autonomic nervous system is responsible for?

A

your heart beating or your palms sweating

100
Q

what are the 2 subcomponents of the autonomic nervous system?

A

the sympathetic nervous system

the parasympathetic nervous system

101
Q

what is the sympathetic nervous system?

A

the nervous system that is responsible for the fight or flight response of an increased heart rate, dilated pupils and decreased salivary flow, the responses that prepare the body for action

102
Q

what is the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

the nervous system that helps maintain homeostatic balance in the presence of change; following sympathetic arousal, it works to return the body to a baseline, non-emergency state

103
Q

what is the brain divided in to 2 what’s?

A

the brain is divided into 2 cerebral hemispheres

104
Q

what are the cerebral hemispheres?

A

nearly symmetrical halves of the brain that contain the same structures

105
Q

what are the 3 main regions of the brain?

A

the hindbrain
the midbrain
the forebrain

106
Q

what are 7 functions of the hindbrain?

A

breathing
heart rate
sleep
wakefulness
balance
coordination
timing of movements

107
Q

what are 2 functions of the midbrain?

A

orienting visual attention
orienting auditory attention

108
Q

what are the 3 parts in the hindbrain?

A

the brainstem
the reticular formation
the cerebellum

109
Q

what is the brain stem?

A

the stem or bottom of the brain and consist of 2 structures, the medusa and the pons

110
Q

what are the 5 things the brain stem perform?

A

regulating breathing
heart rate
sneezing
salivating
and vomiting

111
Q

what is the reticulate formation?

A

extends from the medusa upwards to the midbrain and is involved with attrition and alertness

112
Q

what is the cerebellum?

A

the lobe-like structure at the base of the brain that is involved in the monitoring of movement and maintaining balance, action and emotional response

113
Q

what can damage to the cerebellum cause?

A

uncoordinated jerky movements that interfere with walking, posture, and most limb movements

114
Q

what is the midbrain?

A

the part of the brain that resides above the hindbrain, it primarily functions as a relay station between sensory and motor areas

115
Q

what is the forebrain?

A

the most visibly obvious region of the brain, consists of all of the neural structures that are located above the midbrain, including all of the folds and grooves on the outer surface of the brain, the multiple interconnected structures in the forebrain are critical to emotion, memory, thinking and reasoning

116
Q

what are the basal ganglia?

A

a group of three structures that are involved in facilitating planned movements, skill learning and integrating sensory and movement information with the brains reward system

117
Q

what is the limbic system?

A

an integrated network involved in emotion and memory

118
Q

what is the amygdala?

A

it facilitates memory formation for emotional events, mediates fear responses and appears to play a role in recognizing and interpreting emotional stimuli including facial expressions

119
Q

what is the hippo campus?

A

it is critical for learning and memory particularly the formation of new memories

120
Q

what is the thalamus?

A

a set of neuculi involved in relaying sensory information to different regions of the brain

121
Q

what are the 5 components in the forebrain?

A

basal ganglia
limbic system
amygdala
hippo campus
thalamus

122
Q

what is the forebrain responsible for?

A

processing emotions
memory
thinking
reasoning

123
Q

what is the cerebral cortex?

A

the convoluted, wrinkled outer layer of the brain that is involved in multiple higher functions such as thought language and personality

124
Q

what do the four ventricles do In the brain?

A

they provide nutrition and cushioning for many parts of the brain

125
Q

what are the 4 lobes?

A

occipital lobe
parietal lobe
temporal lobe
frontal lobe

126
Q

what is the occipital lobe?

A

located at the rear of the brain and are where visual information is processed

127
Q

what are the parietal lobes?

A

the lobes responsible for our experience of touch as well our bodily awareness

128
Q

what can damage to the parietal lobe cause?

A

specific impairments, such as neglect where the patient foes not attend to anything that appears in the left half of their visual field

129
Q

what is the temporal lobes?

A

located at the sides of the brain near the ears they are involved in hearing, language and some higher level aspects of vision such as object and face recognition

130
Q

what are the frontal lobes?

A

important in numerous higher cognitive functions such as planning, regulating impulses and emotions, language production and voluntary movement

131
Q

what is the prefrontal Cortex?

A

the front two thirds of the frontal lobes this region performs many higher cognitive functions such as decision making and controlling our attention

132
Q

what is the corpus callosum?

A

a collections of neural fibres connecting the two cerebral hemispheres to make sure both sides of the brain are working together

133
Q

how can the gym help your brain?

A

active exercise has been shown to help with some cognitive abilities, such as learning and memory

134
Q

what is hemispheric specialization?

A

when the two sides of the cortexs often perform very different functions

135
Q

what are split brain patients?

A

individuals with epilepsy who had their corpus callosum severed in order to treat their seizures

136
Q

what is neuroplasticity?

A

the capacity of the brain to change and rewire itself based on individual experiences

137
Q

what are trophic factors?

A

growth chemicals that can stimulate growth of new dendrites and axons, pretty much help the brain grow and recover

138
Q

what is the best way to help repair a damaged brain?

A

doctors force the patient to use the affected brain area as much as possible during recovery because it is a “use it or lose it” ideology

139
Q

are there limits to much much neuroplasticity can help regrow the brain?

A

yes, if a patient has damage to a large amount it will not be possible for the brain to fully repair

140
Q

what are some other factors that can aid brain repair besides neuroplasticity?

A

changes in hormone levels
the brains metabolism
growth factor levels

141
Q

why is it important to understand neuroplasticity?

A

it can help improve the care given to patients and will also inspire new research and innovative techniques designed to help heal the brain

142
Q

what is the scientific process of lesioning?

A

a technique where researchers intentionally damage an area in the brain to isolate the brain damage to a single brain structure and see what specific behaviours changed

143
Q

what is a sham group?

A

a set of animals in a brain study that go through all the surgical procedures aside from the lesion itself in order to control for the effects of stress anesthesia and the annoyance of stitches

144
Q

what is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?

A

a procedure in which an electromagnetic pulse is delivered to a targeted region of the brain, the pulse interacts with the flow of ions around the neurons of the affected area causing a temporary disruption of brain activity similar to permanent brain damage

145
Q

how has neuromaging (taking photos of the brain) helps revolutionize medicine?

A

it allows doctors to see with great precision the size and location of brain injuries

146
Q

what are the 2 types of brain scanning?

A

structural neuroimging
functional neuroimaging

147
Q

what is structural neuroimaging?

A

a type of brain scanning that produces images of different structures of the brain, this is used to measure the size of different brain areas and determine if any brain injury has occurred

148
Q

what are the 3 commonly used types of structural neuroimaging?

A

computerized tomography (CT scan)
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

149
Q

what is computerized tomography (CT scan)?

A

a structural neuroimaging technique in which X-rays are sent through the brain by a tube that rotates the head

150
Q

what is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)?

A

a structural imaging technique in which clear images of the brain are created based on how different neural regions absorb and release energy while in a magnetic field

151
Q

what is the differences between CT scans and MRIs?

A

MRIs produce much clearer images than CT scans and are more accurate at detecting many forms of damage including, severe concussions

152
Q

what is diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)?

A

a form of structural neuroimaging allowing researchers or medical personnel to measure white matter pathways in the brain

153
Q

what is functional neuroimaging?

A

a type of brain scanning that provides information about which ares of the brain are active when a person performs a particular behaviour

154
Q

what is electroencephalogram (EEG)?

A

which measures patterns of brain activity with the multiple electrodes attached to the scalp

155
Q

how does electroencephalogram (EEG) work?

A

it measures the brain waves and looks at the response of the brain towards certain stimulus types, if a certain brain wave was missing they could conclude that a particular region of the brain was not functioning normally

156
Q

what is a magnetoencephalography (MEG)?

A

a neuroimaging technique that measures magnetic fields created by the electrical activity of the nerve cells just a few milliseconds after they occur

157
Q

what is a positron emission tomography (PET)?

A

a type of scan in which a low level of a radioactive isotope is injected into the blood and its movement to regions of the brain in a particular task is measured

158
Q

what are functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?

A

a scan that measures brain activity by detecting the influx of oxygen-rich blood into neural areas that are just active, this produces an accurate image of the functional brain

159
Q

what is one of the most influential research tools in modern psychology?

A

the fMRI, due to its ease of use and lack of radioactivity

160
Q

what are the advantages to a electroencephalogram (EEG) scan?

A

Excellent temporal resolution (measures activity at the millisecond level); inexpensive

161
Q

what are the disadvantages of a electroencephalogram (EEG) scan?

A

Poor spatial resolution (does not give a picture of individual brain structures)

162
Q

what are the advantages to a magnetoencephalography (MEG)?

A

Excellent temporal resolution (measures activity at the millisecond level)

163
Q

what are the disadvantages to a magnetoencephalography (MEG)?

A

Poor spatial resolution (does not give a picture of individual brain structures)

164
Q

what are the advantages to a positron emission tomography (PET)?

A

Provides a picture of the whole brain (although not as clear as fMRI); allows researchers to examine activity related to specific

165
Q

what are the disdvantages to a positron emission tomography (PET)?

A

Very poor temporal resolution (often takes at least two minutes to scan the brain, often longer); involves radioactive isotopes that limit possible participants; very expensive

166
Q

what are the advantages to a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?

A

Excellent spatial resolution (clear images of brain structures)

167
Q

what are the disadvantages to a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?

A

Temporal resolution is not as good as ERP or MEG (it takes approximately two seconds to scan the whole brain)

intro psych (38 decks)

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