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chapter 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is the definition of psychology?

A

the scientific study of scientific behaviour, thought, and experience and how they can be affected by physical, mental, social and environmental factors

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2
Q

what are 6 overarching goals of psychology?

A

to understand how different brain structures work together to produce our behaviour

to understand how nature (genetics) and nurture (our upbringing and environment) interact to make us who we are

to understand how previous experiences influence how we think and act

to understand how groups- family, culture and crowds affect the individual

to understand how feelings of control can influence happiness and health

to understand how each of these factors can influence our well-being and could contribute to psychological disorders

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3
Q

what are the 3 things psychology can help you understand?

A

why other people act the way they do

the factors that influence you and others

how to gain a better understanding and acceptance of the people around you

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4
Q

a person who carefully follows a system of observing, conducting, predicting and testing. is conducting what?

A

they are conducting science

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5
Q

what determines wither a specific type if research is scientific?

A

the scientific method

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6
Q

what is the scientific method?

A

a way of learning about the world through collecting observations, developing theories to explain them, and using the theories to make predictions

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7
Q

what involves a dynamic interaction between hypothesis testing and the construction of theories?

A

the scientific method

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8
Q

explain the scientific method?

A

you start with a theory, then it turns in to a hypothesis, then you test the hypothesis and you either confirm hypothesis or reject hypothesis

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9
Q

if you confirm the hypothesis through testing it in the scientific method what would you do next?

A

either generate another new hypothesis or confirm and strengthen original theory

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10
Q

if you reject the hypothesis through testing it in the scientific method what would you do next?

A

either discard or modify original hypothesis or revise original theory

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11
Q

what does scientific thinking and procedures revolve around?

A

a hypothesis and a theory

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12
Q

what guides the process and progress of the sciences?

A

a hypothesis and a theory

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13
Q

what is a hypothesis?

A

a testable prediction about processes that can be observed and measured

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14
Q

can you prove a hypothesis?

A

no, it can only be supported or rejected because a future experiment could show that it is wrong or limited in some way

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15
Q

when does the support or rejection of a hypothesis occur?

A

after scientists have tested the hypothesis

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16
Q

what is required for a hypothesis to be testable?

A

it has to be falsifiable

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17
Q

what is the definition of falsifiable?

A

the hypothesis is precise enough that it could be proven false

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18
Q

why does a hypothesis need to be falsifiable?

A

to it can be testable but also because it will help future researchers if they try to replicate the study to determine if the results were due to chance

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19
Q

what are 3 examples of good scientific hypothesis?

A

people become less likely to help a stranger if others are around

alcohol reduces the quality of sleep

exercise improves memory

(these are good because they can be confirmed or rejected through testing)

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20
Q

what is pseudoscience?

A

an idea that is presented as science but does not actually utilize basic principles of scientific thinking or procedure

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21
Q

what is a theory?

A

an explanation for a broad range of observations that also generate new hypotheses and integrates numerous findings into a coherent whole

(general principles or explanations of some aspect of the world)

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22
Q

what is an essential quality of scientific theories?

A

they can be supported or proved false with new evidence

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23
Q

if a hypothesis is supported or rejected how does that impact the theory?

A

supported: if the hypothesis is supported it provides more support to the theory, good theories eventually become accepted explanations of behaviour

rejected: if the hypothesis is not supported then researchers may have to rethink elements of the theory

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24
Q

why is hypothesis testing important?

A

because testing a hypothesis helps ensure science is self correcting so bad ideas do not last long

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25
Q

what are 3 common misperceptions about theories?

A

theories are the same as opinions or beliefs
(this is not true because a theory can help scientists develop a testable theory, options cannot and don’t need to testable or logical)

all theories are equally plausible
(not true because scientists come up with theories as to why depression exists, Joel cannot say his theory and claim equal status)

the quality of a theory is related to the number of people who believe it
(not true just because people believe something doesn’t mean its true)

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26
Q

because our thoughts and behaviours have multiple influences, what have psychologist adopted?

A

multiple perspectives to understand them

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27
Q

what is the biopsychosocial model?

A

a means of explaining behaviour as a product of biological, psychological and sociocultural factors

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28
Q

what are 4 biological factors that influence our behaviour?

A

brain structures
chemicals
hormones
external substances (drugs)

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29
Q

what are 3 psychological influences that shape the way we think and respond to people and situations?

A

memories
emotions
personalities

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30
Q

what are 4 sociocultural factors that effect our behaviour?

A

family
peers
ethnicity
culture

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31
Q

what is one of the most challenging aspects of psychology?

A

dealing with biological, psychological and sociocultural factors affecting your brain all at once

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32
Q

what are the 3 main factors impacting your brain on a daily basis?

A

biological
psychological
sociocultural

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33
Q

what is scientific literacy?

A

the ability to understand, analyze and apply scientific information

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34
Q

what are the 4 key components of the scientific literacy model?

A

knowledge gathering (how do we know about this)

scientific explanation (how can science explain it)

critical thinking (can we critically evaluate the evidence)

application (why is this relevant)

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35
Q

why is the scientific literacy method important?

A

it allows us to separate information that we should find convincing from the bad information

allows us to better analyze the information presented by politicians, corporations and the media, making it more difficult for these groups to influence you

allows us to apply the results of scientific studies to different situations

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36
Q

what is an example of the first stage “knowledge gathering” in the scientific literacy model?

A

gathering information on students study methods for exams

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37
Q

what is an example of the second stage “scientific explanation” in the scientific literacy model?

A

after gathering the information on students study methods, examine wether the information that is available about a topic has been tested in scientific studies

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38
Q

what is an example of the third stage “critical thinking” in the scientific literacy model?

A

after we examine the information that has been scientifically tested, we examine the limitations of the studies and look for alternative explanations

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39
Q

what is an example of the fourth stage “application” in the scientific literacy process?

A

you attempt to apply the results to situations outside the laboratory and to the real world

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40
Q

what are 3 examples of misinformation?

A

“fish oil supplements can fight off memory problems in old age”

“how can they say corporal punishment is bad? I was spanked as a kid and I turned out fine”

“covid-19 is just like the common flu. I don’t wear a mask to prevent the flu, why should I wear one to fight covid?”

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41
Q

what is critical thinking?

A

involves exercising curiosity and skepticism when evaluating the claims of others, and with our own assumptions and beliefs

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42
Q

does critical thinking mean being negative or critical?

A

it does not mean being negative or critical, rather it means that you intentionally examine knowledge, beliefs and the means by which conclusions were obtained

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43
Q

what are the 6 steps in critical thinking?

A

be curious

examine the nature and source of the evidence

examine assumptions and biases

avoid overly emotional thinking

tolerate ambiguity

consider alternative view points and alternative interpretations of the evidence

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44
Q

explain and give an example the “be curious” step in critical thinking?

A

simple answers are sometimes to simple and common sense is not always correct, you need to be curious and seek out multiple answers

EG. giving your brain some time to rest after having a stroke hinders rather than helps recovery

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45
Q

explain and give an example the step “examine the nature and sources of the evidence” in critical thinking?

A

not all research is of equal quality, it may be coming from a bad source

EG. some studies use flawed methods or in the case of infamous study linking vaccines and autism, were performed by someone who would benefit financially if the results told a particular story

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46
Q

explain and give an example the step “examine assumptions and biases” in critical thinking?

A

this includes your own assumptions and biases as well as the assumptions of those making the claims

EG. research examining the impact of human behaviour on climate change may be biased if it I sounded by oil companies

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47
Q

explain and give an example of the step “avoid overly emotional thinking” in critical thinking?

A

emotions can tell us what we value, but thy are not always helpful when making critical decisions

EG. you may have strong responses when hearing about differences in the cognitive abilities between genders, however it is important to put those aside to examine the studies themselves

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48
Q

explain and give an example of the step “tolerate ambiguity” in critical thinking?

A

most complex issue do not have clear-cut answers and may need to find multiple answers to form your own opinion

EG. psychologists have identified a number of factors leading to depression, but no single factor guarantees that a person will suffer from this condition

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49
Q

give an example of the step “consider alternative view points and interpretations of the evidence”?

A

it is clear that we require sleep in order to function properly, however there are several theories that can explain the function that sleep serves

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50
Q

what is the principle of parsimony?

A

an idea that the simplest of all competing explanations (the most parsimonious) of a phenomenon should be the one we accept

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51
Q

what are the 2 fundamental beliefs psychological science stems from?

A

empiricism
determinism

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52
Q

what is empiricism?

A

a philosophical tenet that knowledge comes through experience

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53
Q

explain empiricism?

A

empiricism means that knowledge about the world is based on careful observation, not on common sense or speculation. whatever we see or measure should be observable by anyone else who follows the same method

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54
Q

what is determinism?

A

the belief that all events are governed by lawful, cause and effect relationships

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55
Q

what is an example of determinism?

A

if you smell cookies (cause) you might show signs of hunger (effect)

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56
Q

that do psychologists recognize human behaviour to be influenced by?

A

internal and external influences

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57
Q

who made the first observation of brain damage leading to vastly different impairments?

A

ancient Egyptian doctors

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58
Q

when and who created the worlds first personality classification scheme?

A

the physician hippocrities ( 460-370 BCE)

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59
Q

what where the 4 humours or fluids that the greeks believed to influenced both health and personality (temperaments)?

A

blood
yellow bile
black bile
phlegm

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60
Q

what were the 4 temperaments that Galen of Pergamon believe the four temperaments were?

A

sanguine (from blood, a tendency to be impulsive and pleasure seeking)

choleric (from yellow bile, tendency to be ambitious and a bit aggressive)

melancholic (from black bile, a tendency to be independent and a bit introverted)

phlegmatic (from phlegm, a tendency to be quiet and relaxed)

61
Q

what was one of the main reasons psychology didn’t become scientific until the late 1800s?

A

the zeitgeist

62
Q

what is the zeitgeist?

A

refers to a general set of beliefs of a particular culture at a specific time in history

63
Q

what were the 2 ways that the zeitgeist prevented psychology from emerging in the 1600s?

A

dualism (the mind and body were separate)

materialism (humans are only physical matter)

64
Q

what is dualism?

A

the idea that there are properties of humans that are not material (there is a mind or soul separate from the body)

65
Q

what is materialism?

A

the belief that humans and other living beings are exclusively composed of physical matter

66
Q

what is psychophysics?

A

discovered by Gustav fechner, which is the field of study that explores how physical energy such as light and sound and their intensity relate to psychological experience

67
Q

what is an example of psychophysics?

A

if you were holding a one pound weight in your right hand and a five pound weight in your left hand and you add a quarter pound weight to both hands, the one on the right hand would feel heavier

68
Q

what was charels Darwins theory?

A

the theory of natural selection

69
Q

what is Charles Darwins theory, natural selection?

A

it was based on his observation that the genetically inherited traits that contribute to survival and reproductive success are more likely to flourish within the breeding population (useful traits will be passed on to future generations)

70
Q

what does Charles Darwin believe physical traits are shaped by?

A

the environment an animal grows up in, hereditary influences and natural selection

71
Q

what 3 behaviours does Charles Darwin believe have helped out ancestors reproduce and flourish?

A

memory
emotions
forming social bonds

72
Q

what is clinical psychology?

A

the field of psychology that concentrated on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders (medicine had influence on clinical psychology)

73
Q

what is localization of brain function?

A

the idea that certain parts of the brain control specific mental abilities and personality characteristics

74
Q

what is phrenology?

A

created by Franz gall and Johann spurzhiem, it is the idea that the brain is made up of 27 organs corresponding to mental traits and dispositions that could be detected by examining the surface of the skull

75
Q

what are the ways to study the localization of brain function?

A

phrenology

studying brain injuries and the way that affect behaviour

76
Q

who is Franz mesmer?

A

an 18th century Austrian physician

77
Q

what did Franz mesmer discover?

A

hypnosis through magnet therapy

78
Q

who is Sigmund frued?

A

an Austrian physician (1856- 1939) who believed the unconscious mind contained forgotten episodes from childhood as well and sexual impulses, and that these forgotten thoughts manifested in to physical symptoms

79
Q

what is psychoanalysis?

A

a psychological approach that attempts to explain how behaviour and personality are influenced by unconscious processes

80
Q

what did Sigmund frued believe regarding psychoanalysis?

A

he believed that hypnosis payed a valuable role in his work and when a person is hypnotized he felt he could have more direct access in to the individuals unconscious mind. once he gained access he could correct any desires that were causing the unconscious to create physical symptoms

81
Q

who is sir Francis Galton?

A

an early pioneer in measuring perception and in applying statistical analysis to the study of behaviour

82
Q

what did Francis Galton believe?

A

that hereditary (genetics) could explain physical and psychological differences found in a population

83
Q

what is eminence?

A

a combination of ability, morality and achievement. this is what Francis Galton believed the closer a relative is with eminence the better you will be

84
Q

what are nature and nurture relationships?

A

the inquiry into how heredity (nature) and environment (nature) influence behaviour and mental process

85
Q

what did Francis Galton believe about nature and nurture relationships?

A

he believed more about nature and let him to pursue scientific justification for eugenics, he promoted the belief that social programs should encourage intelligent, talented people to have children and not criminals or non-white people

86
Q

what are eugenics?

A

it literally translates to good genes, an idea that only intelligent, talented people to have children and not criminals or non-white people

87
Q

what was Wilhelm Wundt largely responsible for?

A

establishing psychology as an independent scientific field, he created the first laboratory dedicated to studying human behaviour

88
Q

what was Wilhelm Wundts primary research method?

A

introspection, this required trained volunteers to experience a stimulus then report each individual sensation they could identify

89
Q

what was Wilhelm Wundt reaction time methods?

A

a way of studying mental effort, he made people watch 2 balls swing and hit each other, the volunteers took about one eighth of a second to react to the clicking sounds, he determined that mental activity is not instantaneous and requires a small amount of effort

90
Q

who was Edward titchener?

A

a student of Wilhelm Wundt who adopted Wundts method of introspection to devise an organized map of the structure of human consciousness

91
Q

what was Edward titcheners line of research?

A

structuralism

92
Q

what is structuralism?

A

an attempt to analyze conscious experience by breaking it down into basic elements and to understand how these elements worked together

93
Q

what did Edward tetchener believe mental experiences to be made up of?

A

they were made up of a number of sensations, and they could form and create complex compounds

94
Q

who is William James?

A

the man who wrote the first psychological textbook called “the principles of psychology”

95
Q

how did William James like to examine behaviour?

A

in context and explain how our thoughts and actions help us adapt to our environment, this lead to the development of functionalism

96
Q

what is functionalism?

A

the study of the purpose and function of behaviour and conscious experience

97
Q

according to functionalists, what must one try to figure out in order to full understand a behaviour?

A

one must figure out what purpose it may have served over the course of our evolution

98
Q

according to functionalism, what has shaped our brains and behaviours?

A

our brains and behaviours have been shaped by the physical and social environment our ancestors encountered

99
Q

who is Edwin twitmyer?

A

an American psychologist interested in reflexes

100
Q

what was one of Edwin twitmyers experiements?

A

he would hit peoples knees with a rubber mallet making them kick, he would ring a bell to distract them from getting their knee hit, after a while of the knee hit and bell combo the machine broke and just the bell rang, but the persons leg still kicked

101
Q

what is behaviourism?

A

an approach that had a singular focus on studying only observable behaviour, with little to no reference to mental events or instincts as possible influences on behaviour

102
Q

who is Ivan pavlov?

A

a Russian scientist who is most well known for his research on the digestive system

103
Q

what was Ivan pavlov known for?

A

his experiment with the dogs, they would salivate at the sound of the feeding machine even when food was not presented

104
Q

what did the principles of learning that pavlov and others provide a foundation for?

A

the behaviourist movement

105
Q

who was John b Watson?

A

a researcher at John Hopkins university

106
Q

what did John b Watson start to believe?

A

that all behaviour could be explained through conditioning, he believed so much in the power of experience that he was certain he could engineer a personality if he was given enough control of the environment

107
Q

who led the behaviourist movement?

A

John B Watson

108
Q

what did John b Watsons affair lead to?

A

it lead to his new career in advertising, he applied a scientific approach and realized that it didn’t matter consumers knowledge on the product, as long as they had positive emotions associated wth it

109
Q

who is Edward throndike?

A

a psychologist who had show the frequency of different behaviours could be changed based on wether or not that behaviour led to positive consequences or “satisfactions”

110
Q

who is B.F Skinner?

A

a behaviourist who had considerable influence over North American psychology for several decades

111
Q

what was B.F Skinners view?

A

known as radical behaviourism, the foundation of behaviour was how an organism responded to rewards and punishments

112
Q

is the radical behaviourism theory logical?

A

yes, we tend to repeat actions that are rewarded and avoid actions that lead to punishment

113
Q

how did B.F Skinner choose to study radical behaviourism?

A

he used a setup using rats and peigons. he held them in small chambers in which they could manipulate a lever to receive a rewards. when they changed when the animal got the reward they noticed the animals behaviour changed. this lead him to believe that the principle of reward and punishment could apply to all organisms, both human and non human

114
Q

who is Norman triplett?

A

he was an American psychologist who studied how people respond to stimuli around other people, he was the one to conduct the first formal study in this area

115
Q

what was Norman triplets first formal study in to how people respond to stimuli around other people?

A

he observed that cyclists ride faster in the presence of other people than when riding alone

116
Q

what contributed to the take off off social psychology?

A

the nazis. people wanted to know how people could be transformed in to prison guards, how propaganda affected people and how, and the overall research in to social psychology

117
Q

what is social psychology?

A

the study of the influence of other people on our behaviour

118
Q

what led to personality psychology?

A

when researchers notices that not all people respond to social groups or the presence of other in the same way

119
Q

what is personality psychology?

A

the study of how different personality characteristics can influence how we think and act

120
Q

who was Kurt Lewin?

A

the founder of modern social psychology

121
Q

what was lewin’s belief?

A

he believed that behaviour is a function of the individual and the environment

122
Q

explain what Kurt lewin meant by saying “behaviour is a function of the individual and the environment”?

A

all behaviours could be predicted and explained through understanding how an individual with a specific set of traits would respond in a context that involved a specific set of condition

123
Q

what is an example of Kurt Lewin’s belief “behaviour is a function of the individual and the environment”?

A

take 2 people, introverted and extroverted. if you place both of them in 2 settings, a large dorm party and a small get together. the extrovert will feel better at the large party when the introvert will feel better at the smaller get together

124
Q

who was hermann Ebbinghaus?

A

a German psychologist who collected tons of data on remembering and forgetting

125
Q

who was fredrick Bartlett?

A

a British psychologist who found that our memory was not like a photograph, instead our cultural knowledge and previous experiences shape what elements of an event or storyline are judged to be important enough to remember

126
Q

what is an example of structuralism vs gestalt psychology?

A

if you are handed an apple;
structuralism: you would think, red, round, has stem
gestalt psychology: you would think this is an apple

126
Q

what was gestalt psychology?

A

an approach emphasizing that psychologist need to focus on the whole of perception and experience, rather than parts of it

127
Q

why did the invention of the computer help psychologists?

A

it gave them a useful analogy for understanding and talking about the mind (the software of the brain)

128
Q

who is Ulrich Nesser?

A

he was the psychologist who named looking at the whole function of the brain “cognitive psychology” in 1968

129
Q

what is cognitive psychology?

A

a modern psychological perspective that focuses on process such as memory, thinking and language

130
Q

what is humanistic psychology?

A

focus on the unique aspects of each individual human and the belief that humans are fundamentally different from other animals

131
Q

who were the 2 major figures of humanistic psychology?

A

carl rogers
Abraham Maslow

132
Q

what did carl rogers and Abraham Maslow focus on?

A

the positive aspect of humanity and the facts that lead to a productive and meaningful life, they felt humans strive to develop a sense of self and are motivated to personally grow and fulfill their potential

133
Q

how did carl rogers and Abraham Maslow think the meaning of personal experience was?

A

they believed that people could mantain mental well-being and satisfaction through gaining a grater understanding of themselves, rather than being diagnosed with a disorder or having their problems labeled

134
Q

who was Donald Hebb?

A

a canadian neuroscientist working at the Montreal neurological institute, he found that when a brain cell constantly stimulates another brain cell their relationship strengthens

135
Q

what is Hebbs law?

A

memory, a behaviour that were can measure and that affect stop many parts pf our lives, is actually related to activity occurring on the cellular level

136
Q

who is wilder penfield?

A

founder and original director of the Montreal neurological institute

137
Q

what did wilder penfield’s work show?

A

that peoples subjective experienced can be represented in the brain

138
Q

who were the 2 female psychologists teaching and researching in the early stages of the history of psychology?

A

Anna freud and karen Horney, they made groundbreaking contributions to our understanding of personality

139
Q

what are the important women’s issues that started to become researched due to the shift in the 1960s?

A

women’s health
violence towards women
experiences that ere unique to women

140
Q

what is cross-cultural psychology?

A

the field that draws comparisons about individual and group behaviour among cultures

141
Q

what is intergenerational trauma?

A

the transmission of the negative social and emotional consequences of oppression from one generation to the next

142
Q

what is functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI)?

A

allows us to reliably detect activity throughout the entire brain and to depict this activity on clear three dimensional images. go-to tool for cognitive neuroscience

143
Q

what is cognitive neuroscience?

A

understanding the neural behaviours such as memory, emotion, and decision making. it combines cognitive psychology and biopsychology

144
Q

how was positive psychology used during covid-19?

A

it was used of motivation to achieve techniques for coping with stress and psychological disorders, its used increased a bunch during COVID

145
Q

what is applied psychology?

A

when psychology is taking place outside of the laboratory, like in schools, the workplace, military

146
Q

what is industrial/ organizational psychology?

A

applying psychological research to the workplace and helping to ensure that the work environment is fair for all employees

147
Q

what is human factors psychology?

A

helps ensure that our interactions with technologies ranging from computer programs to airline cockpits are intuitive and efficient

intro psych (38 decks)

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