Neurology and mental health

Question 1

What is learning?

Answer 1

acquisition of new information or knowledge

Question 2

What is memory?

Answer 2

storage or retention of acquired knowledge

Question 3

What is an engram?

Answer 3

physical representation or location of memory, a collection of neurones

Question 4

What are the three classificaitons of memory?

Answer 4

Declarative, emotional, procedural

Question 5

Examples of declarative memory?

Answer 5

Daily episodes (remembering address), words and meanings, history

Question 6

Example of emotional memory?

Answer 6

Preferences/aversions–> things we do/dont like depending on past expiriences

Question 7

Examples of procedural memory?

Answer 7

Motor skills, solving puzzles, priming cues, association and linking

Question 8

Which areas of the brain are involved in memory?

Answer 8

All

Question 9

Which brain regions involve emotional memories?

Answer 9

Amygdala, hypothalamus

Question 10

Which part of the brain is responsible for motor memory?

Answer 10

Cerebellum (used for playing instrument riding bike etc)

Question 11

Which areas of the brain are involved in declarative memories?

Answer 11

Hippocampus, entorhinal and parahippocampal cortex

Question 12

Which areas of the brain are involved in procedural memories?

Answer 12

Cerebellum, striatum, brainstem and spinal motor output

Question 13

Which brain area is seen as a hub of learning and memory?

Answer 13

Hippocampus

Question 14

What is anterograde amnesia?

Answer 14

inability to form new memories/learn new things

Question 15

What is retrograde amnesia?

Answer 15

Can’t recall things

Question 16

What is working memory?

Answer 16

Short term memory

Question 17

Order of solidifying a memory?

Answer 17

Input–> short term (working) memory–> long term memory

Question 18

What is Hebbs law?

Answer 18

If there are two connected neurons in the brain, and one repetitively fires APs onto the other (and vice versa), the synapse that connects them becomes permanently stronger

Question 19

What kinds of memories does the engram theory work with?

Answer 19

All of them

Question 20

In terms of an engram, what is short term memory?

Answer 20

Reverberating activity between synapses

Question 21

What does reverberating activity between synapses do to them?

Answer 21

Strengthens them

Question 22

What happens once synapses between neurons reverberate enough?

Answer 22

The synapses become permanently strengthened, thus creating a long term memory

Question 23

Why does only part of a stimulus need to be viewed for an engram to be activated?

Answer 23

Part of the stimulus only triggers a few neurons, but bc they have strengthened synapses they will all end up firing APs

Question 24

What are all memories down to?

Answer 24

Strengthening synapses

Question 25

Which brain area has been the focus of most of research in synaptic strengthening?

Answer 25

Hippocampus/entorhinal cortex

Question 26

Which type of NT neurons are involved in memories?

Answer 26

Glutamatergic

Question 27

How is synapse strengthening studied?

Answer 27

Stimulate axons in the entorhinal cortex that innervate the hippocampus, causing them to fire APs. Can record membrane potential of postsynaptic neuron

Question 28

How does a synapse get stronger?

Answer 28

If a burst of activity happens in the presynaptic neuron (100APs in 100miliseconds) the strength of the synapse is increased--> there is a potentiated AMPAr EPSP which lasts forever--> a larger EPSP as a result of more APs being fired down

Question 29

What is long term potentiation?

Answer 29

Increase in the strength of a synapse after repeated stimulation--> lasts long term

Question 30

What is a tetanus?

Answer 30

A high frequency burst of APs

Question 31

What is the memory response caused by?

Answer 31

Opening of AMPA receptors

Question 32

What happens if NMDA receptors are blocked during memory formation/synapse strengthening?

Answer 32

The potentiated EPSP doesnt occur (LTP doesnt form)

Question 33

What happens if Ca2+ entry via NMDA receptors is limited during synapse strengthening?

Answer 33

The LTP doesnt occur

Question 34

Where is the change that allows a LTP to form?

Answer 34

AMPA receptor

Question 35

What is the change to AMPA receptors caused by?

Answer 35

NMDA receptors

Question 36

State of NMDA receptor pore at normal membrane potential?

Answer 36

Blocked by Mg2+

Question 37

What are NMDA receptors permeable to?

Answer 37

Ca2+ and Na+ both going in

Question 38

How is an LTP manifested postsynaptically?

Answer 38

Intracellular AMPA receptors get trafficked to CSM, the AMPA receptors are more sensitive and there is more synapses

Question 39

How is an LTP manifested presynaptically?

Answer 39

Increased release of NT, more release sites and more vesicles

Question 41

Other than EPSP what can calcium be used for in the postsynaptic neuron?

Answer 41

Signalling

Question 42

What can calcium do as a signalling molecule in the postsynaptic neuron?

Answer 42

Activate kinases, e.g. Protein Kinase C, calcium calmodulin kinase II

Question 43

What can protein kinase C phosphorylate?

Answer 43

AMPA receptor

Question 44

What does phosphorylating AMPA receptors do?

Answer 44

Make it more sensitive--> it opens wider per glutamate molecule that binds to it

Question 45

What does calcium comodulase kinase II do?

Answer 45

Acts as the trigger for causing intracellular AMPA receptors to traffic to the cell membrane.

Question 46

How does calcium cause production of nitric oxide?

Answer 46

Via activity of guanylyl cyclase

Question 47

What is NO used as in LTP?

Answer 47

An NT

Question 48

Good things ab using NO as an NT?

Answer 48

It is a gas so it can freely diffuse from postsynaptic to presynaptic

Question 49

Role of NO presynaptically?

Answer 49

Increased amounts of vesicles, increase probability that a vesicle is released per AP

Question 50

What is a retrograde transmitter?

Answer 50

Goes from postsynaptic to presynaptic

Question 51

Morris water maze?

Answer 51

Opaque body of water with a platform that lets them stand

Question 52

Morris water maze use?

Answer 52

Studying memory

Question 53

How was a morris water maze used to study memory?

Answer 53

Trained them to find the platform (same place) then did that with a NMDA agonist--> when agonist was present they didnt learn where the platform was

Question 54

What is a priming cue?

Answer 54

A stimulus that can trigger memories

Question 55

What kinds of memories can a priming cue trigger?

Answer 55

Conscious--> remember event, subconscious--> feeling ill, anxious

Question 56

What is pavlovian/classical conditioning?

Answer 56

To do with memory linkage: Dog will salivate in response to food, if you combine food and bell then the dog will salivate, if you do it enough the dog will end up salivating if you only ring the bell and don't present food

Question 57

Why is pavlovian conditioning linked to drug abuse?

Answer 57

People associate the place they are, people they are around, music that is playing with taking drugs--> people would crave a drug if they go into the room where they used to take them

Question 58

Outcome of a cocaine user watching a video of nature, then someone doing coke?

Answer 58

Brain activity when nature video was normal but different when they watched someone take coke