Issues and Debates - Learning

Question 1

Ethical

Answer 1

Backer et al (2002)
Did not manipulate IV and cause disordered eating attitudes / behaviours
She just studied it after it had already happened. She also refused to advise the girls as she wasn’t qualified to do so (competent).
Pavlov discovered classical conditioning by performing very tightly controlled experiments on dogs; such tight control would not be ethical with humans

Question 2

Unethical

Answer 2

Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961)
Exposed children to violent role models, which encouraged them to be violent
May have caused lasting harm to those children as a consequence
In Skinner boxes pigeons were starved to 75% of their normal bodyweight to increase their motivation for a food treat; this is considered by many to be unethical

Question 3

Ethics classic study

Answer 3

Watson and Rayner (1920)
Little Albert’s mum not given informed consent and withdraw when she found out what was going on
Means he couldn’t be reconditioned so may have had a lifelong phobia of rats (protection from harm)
He was placed in upsetting situation
On other hand chose him for ‘stolid’ nature

Question 4

Reductionistic

Answer 4

Learning theories such as Skinner were happy to explain ALL behaviour as a outcome of previous learning (we are born a tabula rasa)
This is reductionistic; it leaves no room for instinct

Question 5

Holistic

Answer 5

Bandura’s social learning theory takes a nice, well-rounded approach to explaining observational learning. It blends behavioural and cognitive factors with learning. For example, “identification” is a term drawn from psychodynamic psychology.

Question 6

Classic study for reductionism and holistic

Answer 6

Watson & Rayner (1920): The researchers reduced acquiring a phobia down to a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response. However, in this case I do not believe this to be an OVER-simplification that distorts the true nature of what is going on (acquiring phobias really can be that simple).

Question 7

Nature

Answer 7

In SLT, “identification” is part of our basic human biology; people are born predisposed to pay attention to same-sex role models. This is nature. However, in terms of learning our gender roles, what we learn depends on the culture we find ourselves in. For example, Margaret Mead found that amongst the Tchambuli of Papua New Guinea, the men decorated themselves whilst the women worked.

Question 8

Nurture

Answer 8

In his book, “Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It”, John Watson says that, when we are born, our mind is a ‘tabula rasa’ (a blank slate). Everything has to be learnt. This is nurture. On the other hand, we are biologically pre-programmed to learn some things faster than others. This is called “preparedness”. See Mineka & Cook (1989).

Question 9

Nature vs nurture classic study

Answer 9

Watson & Rayner (1920): Acquiring a phobia is a clear case of nurture. However, you can’t create a conditioned response unless you have an unconditioned response first. Little Albert’s fear of loud noises (UCR) is instinctive (nature).

Question 10

Social control example 1 - token economy

Answer 10

Token economy programmes use the principles of operant conditioning in institutions such as prisons and mental health hospitals to control behaviour. People are given tokens for desired behaviours that they can exchange for things they want. At best TEPs are condescending. At worst they are an abuse of basic human rights.

Question 11

Social control example 2

Answer 11

Aversion therapy uses classical conditioning principles to discourage unwanted behaviours by pairing them with aversive stimuli. This was used to “treat” homosexuality prior to 1973 and caused a lot of suffering for the men involved. We now recognise that homosexuality is not a MHD, making aversion therapy for this purpose CLEARLY a use of psychological knowledge to coerce.

Question 12

Social control classic study

Answer 12

Watson & Rayner (1920): Modern day advertising practices are built on a firm foundation of classical conditioning in humans. Indeed, Watson left Psychology to become an advertising executive.

Question 13

The use of psychological knowledge in society example 1

Answer 13

Becker et al (2002) researched how the introduction of TV to Fiji affected the eating attitudes and body dissatisfaction of teenage girls. Both were negatively impacted. This has led to increasing awareness of the issue and French magazines are now fined up to 30,000 euros if they show size-zero models.

Question 14

The use of psychological knowledge in society example 2

Answer 14

Bandura’s research has highlighted the importance of setting a good example to children and not exposing them to images of violence (e.g. film classifications; what can and can’t be shown before “the watershed” in the UK, etc).

Question 15

The use of psychological knowledge in society classic study

Answer 15

Watson & Rayner (1920): Ultimately, research into the use of classical conditioning on humans has led to treatments such as systematic desensitisation to treat phobias.

Question 16

Scientific

Answer 16

John Watson’s Behaviourist Manifesto (‘Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It’) set out the principles of behaviourism. One of these principles was that psychology should be seen as a science; theories need to be supported by empirical data obtained through careful and controlled observation and measurement of behaviour (this ruled out studying consciousness). Pavlov (1927) is an excellent example of this approach.

Question 17

Unscientific

Answer 17

Becker et al (2002) is a relatively unscientific study because of the lack of control over extraneous variables. The study utilised two different samples of teenage girls. As such, we can’t be sure that the changes in eating attitudes were a consequence of the introduction of TV, or if they were to do with the particular cohort of girls tested (so lacks internal validity). The qualitative data that was collected was subjective.

Question 18

Science classic study

Answer 18

Watson & Rayner (1920): Single case expts. lack pop V but can still be scientific. The study was objective (very little opinion involved in judging whether an infant has developed a fear response). Good controls (e.g. Watson banged the bar behind a curtain so fear was associated with the rat, not Watson himself). The study had a specific, testable (falsifiable) hypothesis. Little Albert may have been retarded though (lack of control).

Question 19

Practicall issues - research method (animal studies)

Answer 19

Animal studies were a popular research method for learning theorists. Based on the “argument of evolutionary continuity”, some people think that what we learn about animals will transfer over to humans. Some people disagree that you can extrapolate like this though. Animals are definitely naïve participants (no demand characteristics) and the level of control you can exercise over extraneous variables is high.

Question 20

Practical issues - piece of research (Pavlov)

Answer 20

Pavlov (1927) had very good control over extraneous variables (e.g. sound-proofed lab; test-tubes cut into cheeks of dogs to accurately measure saliva production). This makes the study reliable and means it has high CV. However, you could question whether or not the results of the study can be extrapolated from dogs to humans (we can think and reason but they can’t).

Question 21

Practical issues classic study

Answer 21

Watson & Rayner (1920): Single case expt. (so pop V is poor). Lacked EV; not because it is unusual to have scary experiences with animals (happens all the time), but because of the unfamiliar environment the study took place in. Little Albert may have been anxious due to the strange surroundings, which may have contributed to him developing a phobia. Well controlled (e.g. Watson hid behind a curtain when making the loud noise).

Question 22

Culture issues example 1

Answer 22

Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961) only tested children from the Stanford University Nursery school, which in 1961 was not a very culturally diverse group of people (overwhelmingly white, educated, and upper-middle class). Despite this, the theory derived from the research (SLT) supposedly applies to all human beings.

Question 23

Culture issues example 2

Answer 23

Becker et al (2002) was limited to Fijian culture (because this was one of the few places that still didn’t have TV at the time). The Fijian girls were measured using the EAT-26 survey which was designed in America. This measurement tool makes assumptions that may not apply to a non-Western culture (e.g. self-induced vomiting being associated with body dissatisfaction). Conclusions of the study were limited to Fiji though.

Question 24

Culture issues classic study

Answer 24

Watson & Rayner (1920): Single case expt. on classical conditioning in human beings using an American child of low socioeconomic status. As such, the study was culturally biased BUT, classical conditioning is a basic learning mechanism that we share with other animals. As such, it is evolutionarily very old and therefore likely to be universal amongst humans (i.e. shouldn’t vary much, if at all, from culture-to-culture).

Question 25

Gender issues example 1 - bandura

Answer 25

Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) looked at every possible combination of role model and observer (i.e. boys watching men, boys watching women, girls watching men, girls watching women) for both aggressive and non-aggressive behaviour (plus a control group). Perfect split (36 boys, 36 girls). The fact that boys were found to be more aggressive is not alpha-biased (it doesn’t exaggerate a difference, it just finds it).

Question 26

Gender issues example 2 - becker

Answer 26

Becker et al (2002) was gynocentric because it only tested girls (63 in the first sample; 65 in the second sample). This is because eating disorders (esp. anorexia) predominantly affect women. However, there are at least some male sufferers of eating disorders and as such, what was found in the research may not apply to them.
NOTE: This is also true of Guardia et al (2012) -> Clinical module

Question 27

Gender issues classic study

Answer 27

Watson & Rayner (1920): Single case expt. that looked at a single male child and assumed that whatever was found with him would apply to all humans (male and female). This appears gender biased BUT c-cond. is a basic learning mechanism that we share with other animals. As such, it is evolutionarily very old and unlikely to be different across the genders (justifiable beta bias?).

Question 28

How psychological understanding has developed over time example 1

Answer 28

Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) led to the development of Social Learning Theory, and the idea that people could be affected by violent role models on TV (e.g. Bandura, 1965). This inspired a raft of research into the effects of violent media (e.g. Andersson & Dill, 2000; the effect of violent video games on aggression).

Question 29

How psychological understanding has developed over time example 2

Answer 29

Psychology was invented simultaneously in America (William James) and Europe (Sigmund Freud). In the early 20th century, Behaviourism replaced Psychodynamic as the dominant paradigm, during which time, research such as Watson & Rayner (1920) was conducted. Behaviourism was subsequently overthrown by cognitivism in the 1950’s.

Question 30

How psychological understanding has developed over time classical study

Answer 30

Watson & Rayner (1920): “Little Albert” was the first study to demonstrate that classical conditioning worked with human beings; this built (?) on Pavlov (1927). This line of work ultimately culminated in psychological therapies that are based on classical conditioning principles; namely aversion therapy and systematic desensitisation.

Question 31

Socially-sensitive research exmaple 1

Answer 31

Aversion therapy is a socially sensitive concept because, whilst it can be used therapeutically (e.g. to treat alcohol addiction), it can also be used in a punitive way. This was arguably the case when it was used to “treat” homosexuality (gay men were made to watch homosexual pornography and then received enormously painful electric shocks to their testicles).

Question 32

Socially sensitive research example 2

Answer 32

Becker et al (2002) was socially sensitive because some of the Fijian schoolgirls criticised their families’ values during the interviews. When the research was published, this might have led to family rifts in that small, close-knit community.

Question 33

Socially sensitive research classic study

Answer 33

Watson & Rayner (1920): Socially sensitive research is research that has negative implications for the individual or group they represent beyond the confines of a study. Watson & Rayner did not decondition Little Albert so he may have had a phobia for life.

Question 34

Comparisons of ways of explaining behaviour using different themes example 1

Answer 34

Phobias can be explained as being acquired through association (i.e. classical conditioning) or by imitation. For example, you could have a phobia of birds because you had a traumatic experience with one, or because you have grown up watching your mum being terrified of birds.

Question 35

Comparisons of ways of explaining behaviour using different themes example 2

Answer 35

Behaviourist explanations of phobias (classical conditioning and operant conditioning) are fundamentally different to SLT based explanations because they leave no room for individual differences. SLT leaves room for individual differences because attention, retention, reproduction and motivation, all vary between individuals.

Question 36

Comparisons of ways of explaining behaviour using different themes classical study

Answer 36

Watson & Rayner (1920): Little Albert’s behaviour was explained using classical conditioning, which is right I think; it has more explanatory power. For example, it can explain why he was afraid of other furry things – stimulus generalisation. However, his behaviour could also be explained using operant conditioning; reaching for the rat was less likely as he was positively punished with an aversive stimulus (loud noise).