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Psychology > Psychology - Chapter 10: Developmental Psychology - important concepts > Flashcards

Psychology - Chapter 10: Developmental Psychology - important concepts Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe bi-directional influences and how these relate to human development.

A

Human development is a two-way street.

Experiences affect development and development influences experiences.

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2
Q

What is the major problem with cross-sectional designs?

What design rectifies this?

A

Cohort effects

Use longitudinal designs to get around this

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3
Q

Longitudinal effects measure what?

Describe.

A

True developmental effects:

- changes over time within individuals as a consequence of growing older

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4
Q

What are issues with longitudinal studies?

A

Costly and time-consuming

Not experimental designs - cannot infer cause and effect

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5
Q

What are externalizing behaviours?

A

Behaviours such as breaking rules, defying authority figures, and committing crimes.

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6
Q

What is attrition?

A

Participants dropping out of the study before it is completed.

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7
Q

What are two myths concerting development?

A

Infant determinism

Childhood fragility

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8
Q

What is infant determinism?

A

Assumption that early experiences - especially the first three years of life - are almost always more influential than later experiences in shaping us as adults

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9
Q

What is childhood fragility?

A

Holds that children are delicate little creatures who are easily damaged

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10
Q

What is nature?

Nurture?

A

Nature - genetic endowment

Nurture - the environments we encounter

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11
Q

What are the three stages of prenatal development?

What time frames do they run from?

A

Germinal stage - 0-2 weeks
Embryonic stage - 22ndd-9th weeks
Fetal stage - 9th week onward

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12
Q

Describe, briefly, the germinal stage.

A

Zygote begins to divide and double to form a blastocyst

During middle of week, cells begin to differentiate and organs start to develop

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13
Q

Describe, briefly, the embryonic stage.

A

2-9 week
Limbs, facial features, major organs begin to take shape
Spontaneous miscarriages occur most often during this period

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14
Q

Describe the fetal stage.

A

9th week
- embryo becomes a fetus
Major organs established
Physical maturation of fetus

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15
Q

When does brain development occur?

A

18 days after fertilization until late adolescence/early adulthood

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16
Q

What is proliferation?

A

Development of neurons at a very high rate

occurs from day 18 to then end of month 6

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17
Q

What are the obstacles to normal fetal development?

A

1 - Exposure to hazardous environmental influences
2 - Biological influences resulting from genetic disorders or errors in cell duplication during cell division
3 - Premature birth

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18
Q

What is premature birth?

A

Birth prior to 36 weeks gestation

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19
Q

What is the viability point?

A

Point at which infants can typically survive on their own - 25 weeks (typically)

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20
Q

What are reflexes?

A

Automatic motor behaviour

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21
Q

What are stage like theories of cognitive development?

A

Characterized by sudden spurts of knowledge followed by periods of stability

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22
Q

What are domain general theories of cognitive development?

A

Children’s cognitive development affects most areas of cognitive function at once.

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23
Q

What are continuous theories of cognitive development?

A

Gradual, incremental changes in understanding occur over time.

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24
Q

What are the ways in which cognitive theories of development differ?

A

1 - Stage-like vs. continuous
2 - Domain-general vs. domain-specific
3 - Primary source of learning:
- physical experience, social interaction, biological maturation

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25
Q

What are the different perceived primary sources of learning according to theorists of cognitive development?

A

Biological maturation
Physical experiences
Social interaction

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26
Q

Piaget’s model had cognitive change marked by what?

Describe it.

A

Equilibration

  • maintaining a balance between our experiences of the world and our thoughts about it
  • Process of assimilation and accomodation lead to equilibration
27
Q

What are the stages of development, according to Piaget. Provide the age spans as well.

A

1 - Sensorimotor stage - 0-2 years

2 - Preoperational stage - 2-7 years

3 - Concrete operations stage - 7-11

4 - Formal operations stage - 11-further

28
Q

What do children in the sensorimotor stage lack?
What do they focus on?
What is the major milestone for this stage?

A

Lack object permanence
Focus on the here and now
Major milestone - mental representation

29
Q

What is mental representation?

A

The ability to think about things that are absent from the immediate surroundings, such as remembering previously encountered objects

30
Q

What do children in the preoperational stage use as representations of ideas?
What is this stage hampered by?
What is this stage characterized by?
What tasks are done here?

A

Language, objects, drawings (can be used as representations of ideas)
Stage hampered by egocentrism
Stage characterized by inability to perform mental operations
Conservation tasks

31
Q

Children in the concrete operations stage can now pass what?
What other tasks can they do?
What is the stage characterized by?
What are they poor at?

A

Can now pass conservation tasks
Can complete organization tasks
Stage characterized by ability to perform mental operations on physical events only.
Poor at performing mental operations on hypothetical situations.

32
Q

A con of Piaget’s theory is that much of the development is more ______ rather than ______.

A

Continuous rather than stage-like

33
Q

What was Piaget’s attempt to explain the domain-general cases?
What was the issue with this?

A

Horizontal decalage: cases in which a child is more advanced in one cognitive domain than another.
Difficult to falsify

34
Q

Psychologists today, due to Piaget’s influence, have reconceptualized cognitive development by what? (3 things)

A

1 - Children are viewed different in kind rather than degree
2 - Learning is active, rather than passive
3 - more domain specific than general

35
Q

Piaget emphasized what as the primary source of learning?

Vygotsky?

A

Physical interaction - Piaget

Social interaction - Vygotsky

36
Q

General cognitive accounts are more similar to whose theory?

How are they different?

A

Similar to Piaget in that they emphasize general cognitive abilities and acquired (Rather than innate) knowledge.
Differ:
- gradual rather than stage-like

37
Q

Sociocultural accounts resemble whose theory most closely?

A

Vygotsky

38
Q

Modular accounts emphasize what type of learning?

A

Domain-specific

39
Q

What are naive physics?

A

A young child’s basic understanding of how physical objects behave

40
Q

What is a false-belief task?

A

Tests children’s ability to understand that someone else believes something they know to be wrong.
- (Test: child hides candy in one place, moves away, mother moves them to a different place. Ask the tested child where the fictional child would look for the candy)

41
Q

What are the three temperamental styles according to Thomas and Chess?

A

Easy infants - adaptable and relaxed
Difficult infants - fussy and easily frustrated
Slow-to-warm-up infants - disturbed by new stimuli at first, but gradually adjust to them
Rest

42
Q

What is the additional temperamental style, not proposed by Thomas and Chess?

A

Behavioural inhibition - scaredy cats

43
Q

Which experiment showed contact comfort?

A

Rhesus monkey - surrogate mother experiment

44
Q

What are the different attachment styles?

A

1 - Secure attachment
2 - Insecure-avoidant attachment
3 - Insecure-anxious attachment
4 - Disorganized attachment

45
Q

Describe the infants reaction to the mother leaving and returning for each attachment style.

A

Secure attachment - infant reacts to mothers departure by being upset, greets her with joy upon return

Insecture-avoidant attachment - little reaction when she leaves and returns

Insecure-anxious attachment - panics when she leaves, mixed emotions when she returns

Disorganized attachment - confused in both cases

46
Q

What are the shortcomings of the strange situation?

A
  • Mono-operation bias - relies on a single measure to draw conclusions
  • not very reliable
47
Q

What are the different parenting styles?

A

Permissive
Authoritarian
Authorative
Uninvolved

48
Q

Describe permissive parenting styles.

A
  • Lenient
  • use discipline sparingly
  • shower kids with affection
49
Q

Describe authoritarian parenting styles.

A
  • Strict - allow little time for free play/exploration
  • Punish children when they don’t respond accordingly
  • little affection shown
50
Q

Describe authoritative parenting styles.

A
  • Supportive of children
  • set clear and firm limits
    (mix of authoritarian and permissive)
51
Q

Describe uninvolved parenting styles.

A

Neglectful parents

Ignore children

52
Q

Which parenting style is best in individualistic countries?

Collectivist?

A

Authoritative

Authoritarian

53
Q

Which is worse for children’s development?

When parents have mild conflict before divorce, or more conflict?

A

Mild

54
Q

What is delay-of-gratification task?

What does it predict?

A

Children can get a bigger reward if they wait longer.

Predicts superior coping ability with frustration as adolescents.

55
Q

What is sex segregation?

A

Children’s understanding that they fit better with their same sex.

56
Q

What is an identity crisis?

A

Confusion most adolescents experience regarding their sense of self

57
Q

What is a psychosocial crisis?

A

Dilemma concerning our relations to other people.

58
Q

What is role experimentation?

A

Period during which emerging adults struggle to find out their identities and life goals

59
Q

What are moral dilemmas?

A

Situations in which there are no clear right or wrong answers

60
Q

What is objective responsibility?

A

Children in the concrete operations stage will evaluate a person by how much harm they’ve done

61
Q

What is subjective responsibility?

A

In the formal operations stage, children tend to evaluate people in terms of their intentions to produce harm

62
Q

What were Kohlberg’s different levels of morality?

What was the focus for each?

A

Preconcentional morality - focus on punishment/reward

Conventional morality - focus on societal values

Post-conventional morality - focus on internal moral principles transcending society

63
Q

Other than chronological age, what are four other indices that can be used?
Briefly describe.

A

Biological age - based on how well the organs work

Psychological age - capacity to deal with stressors of an ever-changing environment

Functional age - person’s ability to function in given roles in society

Social age - whether people act according to social behaviours typical of their age

Psychology (51 decks)

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