Lecture Exam 1 Flashcards
What is a clue that a hormone comes from the hypothalamus?
It has -releasing or -inhibiting in the name
Difference between how ADH and aldosterone retain water?
ADH does not retain salt, it retains water directly, while aldosterone retains salt, indirectly retaining water
Where is the hypophyseal portal system?
In the infundibulum
Most versatile hormone?
Growth hormone
Example of antagonistic hormones?
Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin; insulin and glucagon
What does growth hormone do?
Increase muscle mass and bone density, and reduce fat
What is Cushing’s syndrome?
Excess cortisol
What is Addison’s disease?
Not enough cortisol
What is cortisol?
A glucocorticoid
What is aldosterone?
A mineralocorticoid
What does antidiuretic hormone do?
Conserve water and cause vasoconstriction
What does the adrenal medulla produce?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
What is glucose?
Sugar
What is glycogen?
Stored glucose
What is glucagon?
Hormone that breaks down glycogen to raise blood sugar
Functions of oxytocin?
Labor contractions, milk release, closeness during mother and child, orgasm
What are the classifications of hormones?
Steroids that are cholesterol-based and hydrophobic and peptides that are hydrophilic
What is diabetes insipidus?
Hyposecretion of ADH, causing frequent urination
What is diabetes mellitus?
Hyposecretion or resistance of insulin, causing sugar in urine
What is myxedema?
Hypothyroidism
What is adrenogenital syndrome?
Hypersecretion of androgens
What is gigantism?
Hypersecretion of growth hormone in childhood
What is acromegaly?
Hypersecretion of growth hormone in adulthood
What is pituitary dwarfism?
Hyposecretion of growth hormone in childhood
What causes hyperparathyroidism?
Parathyroid tumor
What happens with hyperparathyroidism?
Bones become soft and fragile
What causes hypoparathyroidism?
Surgical excision
What happens with hypoparathyroidism?
Fatal tetany within days due to rapidly dropped blood calcium levels
What raises blood calcium levels?
Parathyroid hormone from parathyroid gland
What lowers blood calcium levels?
Calcitonin from the pancreas
What is necessary to make thyroid hormones?
Iodine
Do concept check 16
Done
Do concept check 17
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Go review hormones cards
Done
What is the adenohypophysis?
The anterior pituitary gland
What is the neurohypophysis?
The posterior pituitary gland
What is the hypophyseal portal system?
A bed of capillaries in the anterior pituitary gland that connects it to the hypothalamus
What region of the pituitary gland is light?
The neurohypophysis
What do proprioceptors do?
Help with sense of limb position
Where are taste buds?
On lamellae, which are the visible bumps on the tongue
What kind of ending are temperature receptors?
Free nerve endings
Where are olfactory receptors?
In the roof of the nasal cavity
What do gustation and olfaction have in common?
They rely on each other to give complete perceptions of taste and smell
What is the mucous membrane lining the inner eyelids?
Conjunctiva
Function of eyebrows?
protection from debris and sun
Function of eyelashes?
Protects things from entering eyes
Function of iris?
Regulates size of pupil
What is the pigment in rods?
Rhodopsin
What is the pigment in cones?
Photopsins
What do cones see?
Color
What do rods see?
Light
What is conduction deafness?
Deafness due to blockage
What is sensorineural deafness?
Deafness due to damage of cochlea or hair cells
What is accommodation?
Changing shape of lens for near and far vision
What is macular degeneration?
Blindness causes by abnormal blood vessel growth in retina
What is the tectorial membrane?
Where hair cells of the organ of cortex have stereocilia embedded
What is referred pain?
Feeling of pain on body surface that has its origin in an internal organ
What are semicircular canals for?
Rotational equilibrium
What releases ADH?
Posterior pituitary gland
What mechanism does oxytocin use?
Positive feedback
Where does GH stimulate protein synthesis?
Bone, cartilage, and muscle
What metabolism does growth hormone promote?
Fat metabolism
What makes calcitonin?
Thyroid gland
What do the pancreatic islets make?
Insulin and glucagon
Where do endocrine glands secrete?
Directly into the blood and tissue fluids
What produces atrial natriuretic hormone?
The heart
What produces erythropoietin?
Kidney and liver
What produces thyroxine?
Thyroid
What produces epinephrine?
Adrenal medulla
What produces aldosterone?
Adrenal cortex
What bone do olfactory nerves pass through?
Ethmoid
What nerves conduct impulses from taste receptors to the brain?
Facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus
What are the tastes?
Sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami
What type of sense are gustation and olfaction?
Chemical
What type of sense is hearing?
Mechanic
Explain why you experience vertigo when you read in the moving car. What structures are involved and what is the normal function of these structures?
You get vertigo because your eyes are fixed on a nonmoving object, the book, while your body is physically moving. The vestibular apparatus, consisting of the otoliths (saccule and utricle) and semicircular canals are responsible for helping us detect motion. The semicircular canals each have liquid filling them, which moves with the body and tells your brain what direction you’re going in. The utricle and saccule have granules suspended in a matrix, and vertical or horizontal movement causes the hair cells to move, sending information to the brain about this movement. When the inner ear detects motion, yet the eyes do not, vertigo occurs.
Ling, a 75 year old grandmother complained that her vision was becoming obscured. Upon examination by an ophthalmologist she is told she has cataracts. What are cataracts, how do they occur and how are they treated?
Cataracts are a clouding of the lens that occurs from several different factors. Age, diabetes, smoking, drugs, ultraviolet radiation, and viruses each may contribute to an individual having cataracts. It is a darkening of the lens fibers, and debris and bubbles also show up in the lens. Cataracts can be treated by replacing the eye’s lens with an artificial one. one more sentence ugh
Henri, a chef in a 5-star French restaurant, has been diagnosed with leukemia. He is about to undergo chemotherapy, which will kill rapidly dividing cells in his body. He needs to continue working between bouts of chemotherapy. What consequences of chemotherapy would you predict that might affect his job as a chef? (HINT: think about the life cycle of olfactory and gustatory cells).
Chemotherapy is made to kill rapidly dividing cells, since cancer cells themselves divide quickly. However, other cells in the body are also rapidly dividing. These cells include gustatory and olfactory cells, responsible for our taste and smell. Henri’s olfactory cells being killed may mean that he won’t be able to smell the food, possibly causing issues of food getting burnt without him realizing. Similarly, his gustatory cells being killed may affect any taste tests he may need to perform while making new recipes.
Johnny, a 5 year old boy, has been growing by leaps and bounds; his height is above normal for his age. He has been complaining of headaches and vision problems. A CT scan reveals a large pituitary tumor. What hormone is being secreted in excess? What condition will Johnny exhibit if corrective measures are not taken? What is the probable cause of his headaches and visual problems (think about the location of the tumor).
The pituitary tumor is causing an excessive amount of growth hormone to be secreted, explaining his growth. Growth hormone is responsible for the growth of tissues and bones within the body, so an excess of this means he will grow more than other kids his age. If this is not corrected, he will likely exhibit gigantism. The pituitary gland is located near the optic chiasm. Therefore, a tumor there would cause the vision problems he’s experiencing.
Jane lives in Appalachia and suffers from hypothyroidism. Blood tests show low levels of circulating iodine, T3 and T4 but high levels of TSH. What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism? What do you call the enlarged thyroid gland? Why did this occur (think about her diet). What treatment would you recommend?
Jane has low levels of iodine, which is necessary for making T3 and T4. But, with the high levels of TSH, she may have a goiter now. This is what the enlarged thyroid gland is called. It is a result of high levels of TSH but no thyroid hormone being able to be produced due to lack of iodine. Hypothyroidism can cause weight gain and goiter, as previously mentioned. I would recommend adding iodine supplements or fish to her diet
If Mary was lost in the Sahara desert in the summer, why should she NOT drink alcohol? What physiological changes would occur if she were to drink alcohol under these conditions? Explain the hormone and endocrine glands that are affected.
Being in the desert during summer, Mary needs to retain as much water as she can. Since water is necessary for life, and she’s already likely sweating a lot because it’s the desert. Antidiuretic hormone is responsible for retaining water, and it’s normally secreted. However, drinking alcohol inhibits the release of antidiuretic hormone. Therefore, the hormone would not be released, meaning water would not be retained as well, which is dangerous in hot environments without ready access to water.
What types of information do sensory receptors transmit?
Modality, location, intensity, and duration
What are the stimulus modalities?
Nociceptors, thermoreceptors, photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors
What are exteroceptors?
Receive input from stimuli outside of the body
What are interoceptors?
Receive input from stimuli inside of the body
How are special and general senses different?
General senses react to stimuli anywhere in the body, while special senses are only for mechanisms in the head
9 types of receptors?
Tendon organ, lamellar corpuscle, hair receptor, bulbous corpuscle, free nerve ending, muscle spindle, tactile corpuscle, tactile disc, end bulb
What is gustation?
Sense of taste
What are tastants?
Chemicals that stimulate gustation
What are lingual papillae?
Visible bumps on the tongue’s surface
What are taste hairs?
Microvilli on the tongue which are receptors for tastants
What is sound?
Vibrating molecules
What is loudness?
Amplitude of a sound’s vibration
What is pitch?
Whether a sound is high or low, based on frequency of vibrations
What are inner hair cells?
Microvilli that allow for hearing
What are outer hair cells?
Microvilli that adjust the cochlea’s response and make inner hair cells more precise
Layers of eyeball from outermost to innermost?
Sclera, choroid, retina
What is equilibrium?
Our perception of the head’s location and motion
What is static equilibrium?
Perception of the head’s orientation
What is linear acceleration?
Change in velocity in a straight line
What are hair cells?
Cells that detect movement of endolymph in ears
What are otoliths?
Protein-calcium carbonate granules that support our sense of gravity and motion
What is vision?
Perception of objects and the environment
What is light?
Electromagnetic radiation
What is visual filling?
When something is in your blind spot, so your mind fills in the space
What is the near point of focus?
The closest point where you can focus on an object
What is the fovea centralis or macula lutea?
A dense region of photoreceptors for finely detailed vision
What is the optic disc?
The blind spot
How does the body communicate from cell to cell?
Gap junctions, neurotransmitters, paracrines, and hormones
What is negative feedback inhibition?
A gland stimulates another gland to secrete its own hormone, which inhibits the first gland from secreting more of its hormone
What is stress?
Any stressor that impacts the body’s physical or emotional health and leads to an increase in cortisol secretion
Stages of general adaptation syndrome?
Alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
What happens during alarm phase of GAS?
The sympathetic nervous system and adrenal medulla prepare the body to take action by consuming stored glycogen
What happens during the resistance phase of GAS?
After glycogen reserves are depleted, the body finds and makes substitutions for glycogen to keep it functioning
What happens during the exhaustion phase of GAS?
The body’s fat is completely depleted and it starts breaking down protein to meet its energy needs
Go review the alcohol and cataracts questions again
Done
What kind of nerve endings are nociceptors and thermoreceptors?
Free nerve endings
What kind of receptor is blood pressure?
Mechanoreceptors
What kind of receptor is pH levels?
Chemoreceptors
What activates the first-order neuron for pain?
Bradykinin
What is the only special sense which can bypass the thalamus?
Olfaction
What region of the ear does the cochlea belong to?
The inner ear
What organ of the ear is responsible for transduction?
Organ of corti / spiral organ
What is the name of the tube that connects the ear to the throat?
The Eustachian tube
What do semicircular ducts do?
Tell us which way we’re rotating
What in the ear, besides the semicircular ducts, is responsible for equilibrium and balance?
The utricle and saccule
From the BACK of the eye to the FRONT - where does light travel?
Photoreceptors -> bipolar cells -> ganglion cells
Accessory structures of the eye?
Eyebrow, eyelashes, eyelid, conjunctiva, lacrimal apparatus
What are some parts of the lacrimal apparatus?
Lacrimal gland, nasolacrimal duct, lacrimal sac
Tunics of the eye, from outermost to innermost?
Tunica fibrosa, tunica vasculosa, and tunica interna
Components of the tunica fibrosa?
Cornea and sclera
Components of the tunica vasculosa?
Choroid, ciliary body, and iris
Components of the tunica interna?
Retina and beginning of optic nerve
What are some descriptors for eyesight?
Emmetropia, myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, astigmatism
What is emmetropia?
Perfect, 20/20 vision
What is myopia?
Nearsightedness
What is hyperopia?
Farsightedness
What is astigmatism?
Unequal curvature in different parts of the cornea or lens
Steps of accommodation?
Convergence of eyes, iris constricts, ciliary body contracts
What are the nerves associated with taste?
Glossopharyngeal, vagus, and facial
Where do the optic nerves cross?
At the optic chiasm
What is the lacrimal apparatus?
The tears system
What is the function of aqueous humor?
Helps the cornea form its curvature
What is the purpose of the vitreous body/humor?
Keeps the retina in place
What secretes aldosterone?
The adrenal cortex
What does FSH do in women?
Secrete estrogen
What does LH do in women?
Ovulation
What does FSH do in men?
Produce sperm
What does LH do in men?
Secrete testosterone
What does the heart secrete?
ANP
What does ANP do?
Cause you to pee, reducing blood volume and therefore blood pressure
What does the liver produce?
Angiotensinogen and erythropoietin
What does angiotensin do?
Cause vasoconstriction
What do the kidneys produce?
Erythropoietin
What does aldosterone do?
Retain sodium and excrete potassium
What is involution?
Shrinking of an organ with age
What are the thyroid hormones?
T3 and T4
What makes T3 and T4, the thyroid hormones?
Follicular cells, using iodine
What do parafollicular cells make?
Calcitonin
What is alike about the neurohypophysis and the adrenal medulla?
They aren’t true glands, they’re modified nerve tissue
What is polyuria?
Excess urination
What is glycosuria?
Sugar in urine
What is ketonuria?
Ketones in urine
What is polydipsia?
Extreme thirst
What is polyphagia?
Extreme hunger
