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Chapter 7 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the study of bone?

A

Osteology

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2
Q

What is the skeletal system made up of?

A

Bones, cartilages, and ligaments

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3
Q

What are ligaments?

A

Connective tissues that attach bone to bone

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4
Q

What are tendons?

A

Connective tissues that attach muscle to bone

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5
Q

What are the functions of the skeleton?

A

Support, protection, movement, electrolyte balance, acid-base balance, and blood formation

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6
Q

More abt the support function?

A

Limb bones and vertebrae support the body, jaw bones support teeth, some bones support viscera, etc.

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7
Q

More abt the protection function?

A

The skeleton protects the brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs, and more

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8
Q

More abt the movement function?

A

Skeletal system helps w limb movements, breathing, and more

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9
Q

More abt electrolyte balance function?

A

Skeletal system balances calcium and phosphate levels

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10
Q

More abt the acid-base balance function?

A

Buffers blood against large pH changes by altering phosphate and carbonate salt levels

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11
Q

More abt the blood formation function?

A

Red bone marrow is the chief producer of blood cells

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12
Q

What is bone made of?

A

AKA osseous tissue, made of connective tissue with the matrix hardened by calcium phosphate and other minerals

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13
Q

What is mineralization or calcification?

A

The hardening process of bone

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14
Q

What are individual bones made of?

A

Bone tissue, bone marrow, cartilage, adipose tissue, nervous tissue, and fibrous connective tissue

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15
Q

What are flat bones like?

A

Thin, curved plates that protect soft organs

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16
Q

What are long bones like?

A

Longer than wide, rigid levers acted upon by muscles and crucial for movement

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17
Q

What are short bones like?

A

Approximately equal in length and width, glide across one another in multiple directions

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18
Q

What are irregular bones like?

A

Elaborate shapes that don’t fit into the other categories

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19
Q

What is compact bone?

A

The dense outer shell/cortex of bone

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20
Q

What is spongy bone?

A

Loosely organized bone bound in the center of ends and shafts of long bones, and the middle of nearly all others.

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21
Q

What are the features of long bones?

A

Epiphyses and diaphysis, articular cartilage, epiphyseal line, compact and spongy bone, marrow cavity, periosteum, and endosteum

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22
Q

What is the diaphysis?

A

The shaft of a long bone, contains medullary cavity which has bone marrow and yellow marrow

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23
Q

What are epiphyses?

A

Enlarged ends of a long bone. Strengthen joint and anchor ligaments and tendons

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24
Q

What is articular cartilage?

A

A layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the joint surface, allowing it to move more freely

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25
Q

What is the epiphyseal plate?

A

AKA growth plate, an area of hyaline cartilage separating epiphyses and diaphyses of children’s bones. Enables length growth

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26
Q

What is the epiphyseal line?

A

In adults, marks where the growth plate used to be

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27
Q

What is the periosteum?

A

External sheath covering most of the bone. Has an outer fibrous layer of collagen and an inner osteogenic layer of bone-forming cells

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28
Q

What is the endosteum?

A

A thin layer of reticular connective tissue lining marrow cavity. Has osteoclasts and osteoblasts

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29
Q

What is the nutrient foramina?

A

Minute holes through which blood vessels and nerves enter the bone

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30
Q

Structure of flat bone?

A

Sandwich-like. 2 layers of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone. Both surfaces covered w/ periosteum.

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31
Q

What is diploe?

A

The middle layer of flat bones. Spongy, absorbs shock. Marrow spaces are lined w/ endosteum. Has trabeculae - thin plate

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32
Q

What are osteogenic cells?

A

Stem cells found in endosteum and inner layer of periosteum. Multiply continuously and give rise to most other bone cell types

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33
Q

What are osteoblasts?

A

Bone-forming cells. Form single layer of cells under endosteum and periosteum. Nonmitotic.

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34
Q

What do osteoblasts do?

A

Synthesize soft organic matter of matrix which then hardens by mineral deposition. Stress stimulates osteogenic cells to multiple rapidly and increase the number of osteoblasts which reinforce bone

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35
Q

What are osteocytes?

A

Former osteoblasts that have become trapped in the matrix they deposited.

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36
Q

What are lacunae?

A

Tiny cavities where osteocytes reside

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37
Q

What are canaliculi?

A

Little channels that connect lacunae

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38
Q

What are cytoplasmic processes of osteocytes?

A

They reach into canaliculi and contact processes of neighboring cells.

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39
Q

What do osteocytes do?

A

Some reabsorb bone matrix, some deposit it. They act as strain sensors, producing biochemical signals that regulate bone remodeling

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40
Q

What are osteoclasts?

A

Bone-dissolving cells found on bone surface. Develop from the bone marrow stem cells that give rise to blood cells.

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41
Q

What do osteoclasts do?

A

Resorption - dissolving bone and returning minerals to the bloodstream

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42
Q

Osteoclasts structure?

A

Very large cells formed from fusion of several stem cells, w/ multiple nuclei in each cell. Ruffled border faces bone

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43
Q

What is the bone matrix?

A

1/3 organic and 2/3 inorganic matter. Organic matter is fibers and proteins synthesized by osteoblasts, and inorganic matter is mostly hydroxyapatite, some calcium carbonate, and small amounts of other minerals

44
Q

Bone is a composite material, made up of what?

A

A ceramic (hydroxyapatite) and a polymer (collagen). Ceramic lets bone support body weight, polymer gives flexibility

45
Q

What are osteons?

A

A system. A round portion of a compact bone

46
Q

What is a central canal?

A

Large “hole” in the middle of an osteon

47
Q

What are concentric lamellae?

A

Rings surrounding the central canal

48
Q

What are perforating canals?

A

Horizontal passages that connect to central canals

49
Q

Where are interstitial lamellae?

A

Filling irregular regions between osteons

50
Q

Where are circumferential lamellae?

A

The outer region of dense bone (not really in the rings)

51
Q

What are lacunae?

A

Dark spots in rings around the central canal of an osteon

52
Q

What are spicules?

A

Slivers of bone in spongy bone

53
Q

What are trabeculae?

A

Thin plates of bone in spongy bone

54
Q

What fills the space of spongy bone?

A

Red bone marrow

55
Q

Does spongy bone have central canals?

A

No

56
Q

What is red bone marrow?

A

Bone marrow which produces blood

57
Q

What is yellow bone marrow?

A

Fatty marrow only found in long bones. Children don’t have any. Doesn’t produce blood but can turn back into red marrow

58
Q

What is the formation of bone called?

A

Ossification or osteogenesis

59
Q

What is intramembranous ossification?

A

Process of developing flat bones as a fetus, later thickens and remodels adult long bones. Makes skull and clavicle bones!

60
Q

What is endochondral ossification?

A

Process of bone developing from a pre-existing cartilage model. Most bones made this way

61
Q

What is bone elongation?

A

When cartilage on the epiphyseal plate transitions to bone

62
Q

What is interstitial growth?

A

Bones increase in length

63
Q

When all cartilage in a bone has been turned into bone, what happens?

A

The epiphyses close and the epiphyseal line marks where the plate used to be

64
Q

What are the 2 types of dwarfism?

A

Achondroplastic - bones stop growing
Pituitary - lack of growth hormone

65
Q

What is appositional growth?

A

Growth at the bone surface, bones become wider

66
Q

How much bone remodeling occurs each year?

A

About 10% of your skeleton is remodeled a year

67
Q

Are mature bones still active or no? What do they do?

A

Yes, they are still metabolically active, maintaining their remodeling and exchanging minerals w tissue fluid

68
Q

What is mineral deposition?

A

Process in which calcium, phosphate, and other ions are taken from blood and deposited in bone

69
Q

What is mineral resorption?

A

Process of dissolving bone and releasing minerals into the blood. Performed by osteoclasts

70
Q

What is abnormal calcification?

A

Formation of a calcified mass in an otherwise soft organ

71
Q

What does phosphate do?

A

Besides being a part of bone structure, it is a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, phospholipids, and pH buffers

72
Q

What does calcium do?

A

Besides bone structure, it’s used in neuron communication, muscle contraction, blood clotting, and exocytosis

73
Q

What regulates calcium homeostasis?

A

Calcitriol, calcitonin, and parathyroid hormone

74
Q

What is calcitriol?

A

Most active form of vitamin D, produced by skin, liver, and kidneys

75
Q

How is calcitriol produced?

A

Keratinocytes convert a steroid into choleocalciferol using UV energy, and then a hydroxyl group is added, then it goes through the kidneys to become calcitriol

76
Q

What does calcitriol do?

A

Raise blood calcium level

77
Q

Why is calcitriol important?

A

It makes bones strong and solid, a lack of it means soft bones

78
Q

What is calcitonin?

A

A hormone secreted by the thyroid gland when blood calcium levels are too high

79
Q

What does calcitonin do?

A

Lowers blood calcium concentration by inhibiting osteoclasts and stimulating osteoblasts

80
Q

Who is calcitonin most vital in?

A

Children

81
Q

What does parathyroid hormone do?

A

When calcium levels are low, it raises blood calcium in 4 ways

82
Q

How does PTH raise calcium levels?

A

Stimulates osteoblasts to secrete RANKL, which increases osteoclast population.
Promotes calcium reabsorption by kidneys.
Promotes calcitriol synthesis in kidneys, enhancing calcium-raising effect.
Inhibits collagen synthesis, which inhibits bone deposition

83
Q

What is hypocalcemia?

A

Calcium deficiency in blood

84
Q

What is hypercalcemia?

A

Excessive calcium levels

85
Q

Effects of hypocalcemia?

A

Overly excitable nervous system and tetany (muscle spasms)

86
Q

Effects of hypercalcemia?

A

Nerve and muscles are less excitable, can cause weakness, sluggishness, cardiac arrest

87
Q

How much phosphorous does an average adult have?

A

500-800g, with 85-90% in the bones

88
Q

What affects bone tissue?

A

Calcium, phosphorous, and 20+ hormones, vitamins, and growth factors

89
Q

When is bone growth most rapid?

A

Puberty and adolescence, because of surges of growth hormone, estrogen, and testosterone occur

90
Q

What is orthopedics?

A

Branch of medicine dealing w/ prevention and correction of bone, joint, and muscle injuries/disorders

91
Q

What is a stress fracture?

A

A break caused by abnormal trauma to a bone (like a fall)

92
Q

What is a pathological fracture?

A

A break in a bone weakened by disease (like bone cancer or osteoporosis)

93
Q

How are fractures classified?

A

Direction of fracture line, break in the skin, and multiple pieces

94
Q

What is a nondisplaced bone fracture?

A

The bone pieces remain in proper anatomical alignment

95
Q

What is a displaced bone fracture?

A

At least one piece is shifted out of alignment with the other

96
Q

What is a comminuted bone fracture?

A

A bone is broken into 3 or more pieces

97
Q

What is a greenstick bone fracture?

A

A bone is incompletely broken on one side and bent on the opposite side

98
Q

4 steps of fracture healing?

A

1 - Hematoma formation (converted to granulation tissue)
2 - Soft callus formation (granulation tissue turns into soft callus bc of collagen and fibrocartilage)
3 - Hard callus formation (osteoblasts make bony collar around fracture)
4 - Bone remodeling (small bone fragments are removed while spongy bone is deposited and then turned into compact bone)

99
Q

What are the ways of treating a fracture?

A

Closed reduction, open reduction, cast, traction, and pins

100
Q

What is closed reduction?

A

A procedure where bone fragments are manipulated into their normal positions without surgery

101
Q

What is an open reduction?

A

Surgical exposure of the bone and use of plates, screws, or pins to realign fragments

102
Q

When are tractions used often?

A

Children femur fractures

103
Q

What is osteoporosis?

A

Most common bone disease, a severe loss of bone density

104
Q

How does estrogen affect bones?

A

It maintains bone density in both sexes and inhibits resorption by osteoclasts. (When women get older and have less estrogen, their osteoclasts are no longer inhibited)

105
Q

How can you slow down osteoporosis?

A

Prevention - exercise and eat foods w/ calcium from age 25-40

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