Final Flashcards
Hierarchy of anatomy?
Atoms -> molecules -> organelles -> cells -> tissues -> organs -> organ systems -> organism
Simplest body structure considered alive?
Cells
What are emergent properties?
Properties of an organism that you couldn’t guess just by looking at its individual parts
What do protons do in an atom?
Determine its identity
Properties of life?
Organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, movement, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution
What is catabolism?
Component of metabolism; breakdown of complex molecules into simple ones
Properties of a reference human (for textbooks)?
22 y/o, 58kg and 2000 cal a day for women, 70kg and 2800 cal a day for men
Is homeostasis static?
No, it fluctuates around a set point
What does negative feedback do?
Return body to set point
What does positive feedback do?
Cause greater change in same direction, self-amplifying
What are gradients?
Difference between 2 points in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure
Top 3 abdominal regions?
Right and left hypochondriac, epigastric
Middle 3 abdominal regions?
Right and left lumbar, umbilical
Bottom 3 abdominal regions?
Right and left inguinal, hypogastric
What do electrons do in an atom?
Determine its chemical properties by how it binds
What do neutrons do in an atom?
Stabilize the nucleus
Go label a cell’s interior
Done
What is cytosol?
Watery part of cytoplasm
What is ICF?
Fluid inside cell
What is ECF?
Fluid outside cell
What is cytoplam?
Gel inside cell containing organelles, the cytoskeleton, and inclusions
What is nucleoplasm?
Cytoplasm of nucleus
How do pairs assemble in DNA?
A with T, C with G
What is a glycoprotein?
A carb bound to a protein
What is a glycolipid?
A carb bound to a lipid
What is specificity?
When a receptor protein only binds to specific chemicals
What is the plasma membrane made of?
Phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids
How many layers in the membrane around the nucleus and mitochondria?
2
What methods of transport use carriers?
Primary and secondary active transport, and facilitated diffusion
What methods of transport go down the gradient?
Osmosis, facilitated diffusion
Cell shapes?
Squamous, cuboidal, columnar, polygonal, stellate, spheroidal, ovoid, discoid, fusiform, fibrous
What is negative feedback?
Counteracting a change in conditions. Ex: heat and heart rate regulation
What is positive feedback?
Creating greater change in a direction. Ex: blood clotting, fever
Anatomical planes?
Coronal/frontal, sagittal, transverse
Body cavities?
Cranial, spinal, thoracic, abdominal, pelvic
Body systems?
Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, lymphatic, respiratory, urinary, nervous, endocrine, circulatory, digestive, reproductive (M and F)
Where are the parts of an atom found?
Protons and neutrons in nucleus, electrons surrounding
What are ions?
Atoms with a positive or negative charge due to unequal protons and electrons
What are acids?
H+ donors
What are bases?
H+ acceptors, sometimes OH- donors
Acidic range of pH?
0 - 6.9
Basic range of pH?
7.1 - 14
More acidic substances have more or less H+?
Less H+
Reaction types?
Ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and hydrogen bonds
3 important monosaccharides?
Glucose, fructose, and galactose
3 important disaccharides?
Sucrose, lactose, and maltose
What are some important polysaccharides?
Glycogen, amylose, and cellulose
Types of lipids?
Fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, eicosanoids, and steroids
What do phospholipids do?
Form cell membranes
What do eicosanoids do?
Play a role in signalling info, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contractions, and control of blood vessel diameter
Functions of proteins?
Structure, communication, membrane transport, catalysis, recognition and protection, movement, and cell adhesion
What do enzymes do?
They’re proteins that act as biological catalysts. They lower activation energy by binding to substrate and breaking down into reaction products
What does the plasma membrane do?
Surround the cell and define boundaries, govern interactions w/ other cells, and control passage of materials in and out of the cell
How does smooth ER look?
Like tubes near nucleus, but outer
How does rough ER look?
Like thin tunnels around nucleus w/ studs
How does mitochondria look?
Ovals with squigglies
How does the nucleolus look?
The dark spot in the nucleus
How does the Golgi complex look?
Like a stack of pita bread away from the nucleus
What are cilia?
Long hairlike processes on the membrane that move substances along its surface
What are microvilli?
Short hairlike processes of membrane which increase its surface area
How do substances pass through cell membrane?
Through channel proteins, carrier-mediated transport, leak channels, filtration, simple diffusion, and osmosis
What are flagella?
Only found on sperm, tails of cells which propel their movement
What is simple diffusion?
Moving down gradient
What is filtration?
Being driven through membrane by physical pressure
What is isotonic?
Cell stays the same because of even numbers of nonpermeable solutes on either side of membrane
What is hypertonic?
More nonpermeable solutes outside the cell, water exits
What is hypotonic?
More nonpermeable solutes inside the cell, water comes in
Mechanisms of carrier-mediated transport?
Facilitated diffusion, primary active transport, and secondary active transport
Types of carriers?
Uniport, symport antiport
What do microfilaments do?
Form terminal web for support and permeability barrier
What do intermediate filaments do?
Give cell shape and resist stress. Made of keratin
What do microtubules do?
Maintain cell shape, hold organelles, act as railroad tracks, make axonemes of cilia and flagella, form mitotic spindle. Made of tubulin
What does the nucleus do?
Hold DNA inside
What does rough ER do?
Synthesize proteins and phospholipids or other components of the cell membrane
What does smooth ER do?
Synthesize steroids and lipids, detox drugs, store calcium
What do ribosomes?
Read coded genetic messages and assemble amino acids into protein
What does the Golgi complex do?
FInish protein and glycoprotein synthesis by putting them into vesicles to become lyososmes, secretory vesicles, or part of the plasma membrane
what do lysosomes do?
Phagocytize materials or an entire surplus cell
What do peroxisomes do?
Neutralize free radicals, drugs, and toxins. Break down fatty acids into acetyl groups for use in ATP synthesis
What do mitochondria do?
Synthesize ATP
What do centrioles do?
Form basal bodies of cilia and flagella and also become important in cell division
Structure of DNA?
Double helix. Each side is phosphate groups alternating w/ deoxyribose, and the connections between strands are pairs of nitrogen bases held together by weak hydrogen bonds
What does DNA do?
Carry instructions for synthesis of RNA and specific proteins
Structure of RNA?
One chain, not a double helix. Ribose instead of deoxyribose for sugar. Uracil instead of thymine for nitrogenous base
What do RNA do?
Carry out instructions in DNA and assemble proteins
What is a codon?
A 3-base sequence in mRNA which is used to assemble amino acids
What is an anticodon?
3 nucleotides of tRNA that are complementary to a codon of mRNA
What is transcription?
DNA codes for mRNA in the nucleus
What is translation?
mRNA codes for protein in the cytoplasm
Steps of transcription?
RNA polymerase opens up the DNA double helix and goes down each strand making a corresponding mRNA, and exons are spliced together
Steps of translation?
Initiation (ribosome joins), elongation(amino acids are delivered to ribosome, allowing for peptide bonds and protein), and termination (stop codon tells ribosome to release the protein). Then proteins are packaged and exported
Steps of DNA replication?
DNA unwinds from histones, DNA helicase unzips a segment at the replication fork, DNA polymerase builds new strands, and 2 daughter cells are made from original DNA. then new DNA is repackaged
Stages of cell cycle?
Interphase (chilling) and mitotic phase (dividing)
What is G1?
First gap phase of interphase, cell functions normally and gets materials ready
What is S phase?
Synthesis phase of interphase, cell replicates all nuclear DNA and duplicates centrioles
What is G2?
Second gap phase of interphase, cell repairs DNA replication erorrs, grows, and makes enzymes for division
What occurs during mitotic phase?
Cell replicates nucleus and forms 2 new daughter cells. Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
What happens during prophase?
Nuclear envelope around chromosomes disintegrates and centrioles spout spindle fibers
What happens during metaphase?
Chromosomes align on cell equator, spindle creates mitotic spindle
What happens during anaphase?
Enzyme cleaves 2 sister chromatids apart at the centromere and the single-stranded daughter cells migrate to each pole of the cell
What happens during telophase?
Chromosomes cluster on either side of the cell, rough ER makes a new nuclear envelop around the clusters, chromosomes uncoil to chromatin, and mitotic spindle disintegrates as each nucleus forms nucleoli
What happens during cytokinesis?
Cytoplasm divides into the 2 new cells
Types of epithelial tissue?
Simple and stratified / squamous, cuboidal, columnar, pseudostratified / transitional
Locations + functions of simple squamous epithelium?
Alveoli, glomeruli, endothelium, serosa. Rapid diffusion or transport of substances, secretes serous fluid
Locations + functions of simple cuboidal epithelium?
Liver, thyroid, mammary and salivary glands, bronchioles, kidney tubules. Absorption and secretion; mucus production and movement
Locations + functions of simple columnar epithelium?
Lining of GI tract, uterus, kidney, uterine tubes. Absorption and secretion, secretion of mucus
Locations + functions of pseudostratified epithelium?
Respiratory tract, some of male uretrha. Secretes and propels mucus
Locations + functions of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium?
Epidermis, especially palms and soles. Resists abrasion and water loss through skin and penetration by pathogens
Locations + functions of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium?
Tongue, oral mucose, esophagus, vagina. Resists abrasion and penetration by pathogens
Locations + functions of transitional epithelium?
Ureter and urinary bladder. Stretches to allow urinary tract to fill
Types of connective tissue fibers?
Collagenous, reticular, and elastic
Types of connective tissues?
Loose fibrous connective, dense fibrous connective, cartilages, bone, and blood
General functions of connective tissue?
Connect organs, support, physical protection, movement, storage, heat production, blood transport
Locations + functions of areolar connective tissue?
Almost every tissue of the body, it’s what epithelium rests on and is a passageway for nerves and blood vessels
Locations + functions of reticular connective tissue?
Lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow. Forms framework for lymphatic organs
Locations + functions of dense regular connective tissue?
Tendons, ligaments. Made of collagen. Helps connect muscle to bones or bones together
Locations + functions of dense irregular connective tissue?
Deepest layer of skin, capsules around organs. Withstands unpredictable stresses
Locations + functions of adipose connective tissue?
Like everywhere but especially body contours. Holds fat cells which are useful for cushioning
Locations + functions of cartilage connective tissue?
Ear, nose, larynx, and bones. Gives shape and allows for bone growth
Types of cartilage?
Hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage
Locations + functions of hyaline cartilage?
Trachea, larynx, fetal skeletal, articular and costal cartilage. Eases joint movement, holds airway open, grows young long bones
Locations + functions of fibrocartilage?
Pubic symphysis, menisci, intervertebral discs. Resists compression and absorbs shock
Locations + functions of elastic cartilage?
External ear and epiglottis. Flexible, elastic support
What is ground substance?
Gel-like substance in the extracellular space that contains all components of the extracellular matrix
What are osteons?
Central canals and surrounding lamellae
What are osteocytes?
Mature bone cells within lacunae
What are erythrocytes?
Red blood cells
What are white blood cells?
Leukocytes
What are platelets?
Blood cell fragments involved in clotting
Types of excitable tissue?
Nervous tissue, skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
Location + functions of nervous tissue?
Spinal cord, brain, and nerves. Detect stimuli and respond
What are tight junctions?
Links between adjacent cells that don’t let things between
What are gap junctions?
Links between cells that allow for communication and solutes to pass through pores
What are exocrine glands?
Glands w/ direct surface contact
What are endocrine glands?
Glands that secrete hormones directly into the blood
What are serous glands?
Glands that secrete thin, watery substances
What are mucous glands?
Glands that produce mucin, which makes mucus
What is merocrine/eccrine secretion?
Uses vesicles and exocytosis. in the tear glands, gastric glands, and the pancreas
What is apocrine secretion?
Lipid droplets bud from cell surface. Like milk
What is holocrine secretion?
Cells accumulate a product until they disintegrate. Like oil glands
What is hyperplasia?
Growth through cell multiplication
What is hypertrophy?
Enlargement of preexisting cells
