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Chapter 16 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a sensory receptor?

A

A structure specialized to detect a stimulus

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2
Q

What is a sense organ?

A

A structure combining nervous and other tissues to enhance the response to a certain type of stimulus

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3
Q

What is transduction?

A

Conversion of one form of energy to another. Such as stimulus energy to nerve signals

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4
Q

What is receptor potential?

A

The initial effect of a stimulus on a sensory cell. Can lead to firing of action potentials, or release of neurotransmitter depending on the sensory cell type

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5
Q

What is a sensation?

A

A subjective awareness of a stimulus, resulting when sensory signals reach the brain

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6
Q

Why might some sensory signals not reach the brain?

A

Because they get filtered out in the brainstem to prevent overstimulation

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7
Q

What types of information do sensory receptors transmit?

A

Modality, location, intensity, and duration

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8
Q

What is modality of a stimulus?

A

The type of stimulus or the sensation it produces

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9
Q

What determines modality of a stimulus?

A

Where the sensory signals end in the brain

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10
Q

What is the location of a stimulus?

A

Sensory neurons have receptive fields in which any stimulation triggers the same neuron to send signals to the brain. More sensitive areas have smaller receptive fields

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11
Q

What is the intensity of a stimulus distinguished by?

A

Which neurons are firing, how many neurons are firing, and how fast they’re firing

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12
Q

What is duration of a stimulus encoded by?

A

Encoded by changes in firing frequency with passage of time

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13
Q

What is sensory adaptation?

A

If receptors are exposed to a stimulus for a long time, the neuron fires slower over time and you become less aware of the stimulus

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14
Q

What are phasic receptors?

A

Receptors which generate bursts of action potentials when stimulated, then quickly adapt and reduce signaling

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15
Q

What are tonic receptors?

A

Receptors which adapt to extended stimulation more slowly and steadily, making you more aware of the sensation than w/ phasic receptors

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16
Q

How are receptors classified?

A

Stimulus modality, stimulus origin, and distribution of receptors in the body

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17
Q

What are exteroceptors?

A

Sensory receptors that sense stimuli external to the body

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18
Q

What are interoceptors?

A

Sensory receptors that sense stimuli internal to the body

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19
Q

What are proprioceptors?

A

Sensory receptors that detect position and movement of the body and its parts

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20
Q

What are general senses?

A

Distributed throughout the body

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21
Q

What are special senses?

A

Distributed solely in the head, innervated by cranial nerves, and employing complex sense organs

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22
Q

What do thermoreceptors detect?

A

Heat and cold

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23
Q

What do photoreceptors detect?

A

Light

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24
Q

What do nociceptors detect?

A

Pain

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25
Q

What do chemoreceptors detect?

A

Chemical changes

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26
Q

What do mechanoreceptors detect?

A

Physical movement

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27
Q

What are the unencapsulated nerve endings?

A

Free nerve endings, tactile discs, and hair receptors

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28
Q

What are the encapsulated nerve endings?

A

Tactile corpuscles, end bulbs, bulbous corpuscles, lamellar (Pacinian) corpuscles, muscle spindles, and tendon organs

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29
Q

Modality of free nerve endings?

A

Thermoreceptors and nociceptors

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30
Q

Modality of tactile discs?

A

Tonic, mechanoreceptors

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31
Q

Modality of hair receptors?

A

Phasic, mechanoreceptors

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32
Q

Modality of tactile corpuscles?

A

Light touch and thermoreceptors

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33
Q

Modality of end bulbs?

A

Light touch and thermoreceptors

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34
Q

Modality of bulbous corpuscles?

A

Tonic, mechanoreceptors

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35
Q

Modality of lamellar (Pacinian) corpuscles?

A

Phasic, for vibration

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36
Q

Modality of muscle spindles?

A

Mechanoreceptors

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37
Q

Modality of tendon organs?

A

Mechanoreceptors

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38
Q

What is sensory projection?

A

Transmission of info from a receptor (or receptive field) to a specific locality in the cerebral cortex for identification of origin

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39
Q

What are projection pathways?

A

The pathways followed by sensory signals to their destinations in the CNS. From first, second, and third order neurons

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40
Q

Where do first-order neurons lead?

A

To brainstem

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41
Q

Where do second-order neurons lead?

A

From brainstem to thalamus

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42
Q

Where do third-order neurons lead?

A

From thalamus to cerebrum

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43
Q

How do proprioception signals differ from others?

A

They don’t require third-order neurons; second-order neurons go all the way from brainstem to cerebrum

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44
Q

What is fast/first pain?

A

A sharp, stabbing pain at time of injury

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45
Q
A
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46
Q

What is slow/second pain?

A

Longer-lasting, dull and diffused pain

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47
Q

Where is somatic pain?

A

In the skin, muscles, or joints

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48
Q

Where is visceral pain?

A

In the viscera, due to stretch or chemical irritants

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49
Q

What is bradykinin?

A

The most potent pain chemical in the body, which makes us aware of injuries and activates a cascade of reactions that promote healing

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50
Q

What is referred pain?

A

When pain in a viscera feels as though it comes from a different region of the body due to convergence of neural pathways in the CNS

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51
Q

Structures involved in pain signals reaching from head to brain?

A

Trigeminal nerve, facial nerve, glossopharyngeal nerve, vagus nerve

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52
Q

Structures involved in pain signals reaching from neck to brain?

A

Spinothalamic tract, spinoreticular tract, and gracile fasciculus

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53
Q

What are analgesic mechanisms?

A

Pain-relieving mechanisms in the CNS

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54
Q

What are endogenous opioids?

A

Opioids produces by the body and secreted by the CNS, pituitary gland, and digestive tract. Relieves pain

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55
Q

What are THE endogenous opioids?

A

Enkephalins, endorphins, and dynorphins

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56
Q

Route of normal pain transmission?

A

Nociceptor stimulates second-order nerve fiber, releasing substance P -> second-order nerve fiber transmits signals to thalamus -> thalamus relays signals through third-order neuron to cerebral cortex

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57
Q

Route of pain modulation?

A

Hypothalamus + cerebral cortex signals feed into gray matter of midbrain for autonomic and conscious influences on pain perception ->midbrain relays signals to nuclei in medulla oblongata -> medulla issues serotonin-secreting analgesic fibers to spinal cord’s posterior horns -> analgesic fibers of posterior horns secrete enkephalins, inhibiting second-order neuron -> some fibers from medulla block release of substance P

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58
Q

What is the physical method of pain modulation?

A

Massaging the affected area, which works because pain-inhibiting interneurons in posterior horn receive input from the skin’s mechanoreceptors, so when you rub, you stimulate those m.ceptors which stimulate spiral interneurons to secrete enkephalins. Inhibiting second-order neurons

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59
Q

What papillae do not have taste buds?

A

Filiform and foliate (after age 3)

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60
Q

What papillae have taste buds?

A

Fungiform and vallate

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61
Q

What taste buds does the facial nerve get input from?

A

Anterior 2/3 of tongue

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62
Q

What taste buds does the glossopharyngeal nerve get input from?

A

Posterior 1/3 of tongue

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63
Q

What taste buds does the vagus nerve get input from?

A

Palate, pharynx, and epiglottis

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64
Q

What do proprioceptors do?

A

Limb position

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65
Q

What are taste buds found on?

A

Papillae

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66
Q

What kind of endings are temperature receptors?

A

Free nerve endings

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67
Q

Where are the olfactory receptors?

A

Roof of nasal cavity

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68
Q

Lining of inner eyelids?

A

Conjunctiva

69
Q

Function of the iris?

A

Regulate pupil size

70
Q

What pigment is in rods?

A

Rhodopsin

71
Q

What pigment is in cones?

A

Photopsin

72
Q

What is accomodation?

A

Changing shape of the lens for far and near vision

73
Q

What is macular degeneration?

A

Blindness caused by abnormal blood vessel growth in retina

74
Q

What is the tectorial membrane?

A

Where hair cells of the organ of Corti have their stereocilia embedded

75
Q

What is referred pain?

A

Feeling of pain on the body surface that has its origin in an internal organ

76
Q

What are semicircular canals for?

A

Rotational equilibrium

77
Q

What are the sensory cells of gustation?

A

Taste buds

78
Q

What are the chemical stimulants of gustation?

A

Tastants

79
Q

Where are tastants?

A

All over the tongue, as well as on the cheeks, soft palate pharynx, and epiglottis

80
Q

What are the bumps on the tongue?

A

Lingual papillae

81
Q

Characteristics of filiform papillae?

A

Innervated, lack taste buds. Allow perception of food texture

82
Q

Characteristics of foliate papillae?

A

Weak in humans. Adjacent to molar and premolar teeth. Have taste buds

83
Q

Characteristics of fungiform papillae?

A

3 taste buds each. Widely distributed, respond to food texture

84
Q

Characteristics of vallate papillae?

A

Arranged in a V at the back of the tongue. Only 7-12, but each has a TONNN of taste buds

85
Q

What are taste hairs?

A

Apical microvilli which are receptor surfaces for tastants and project into taste pores

86
Q

What kind of cell are taste cells?

A

Epithelial, they synapse with sensory nerve fibers

87
Q

What are basal cells?

A

Stem cells that multiply and replace dead taste cells since they only last 7-10 days. They also may have a role in processing sensory info

88
Q

What are supporting gustatory cells?

A

Cells that resemble taste cells but have no synaptic vesicles or sensory role

89
Q

How does taste work?

A

Food dissolves in the saliva and floods the taste pore

90
Q

5 main taste sensations?

A

Salty, sour, sweet, bitter, umami

91
Q

Why is salty an important taste?

A

Bc you need electrolytes

92
Q

Why is sour an important taste?

A

To avoid spoiled food and overloading body’s acid-base balance

93
Q

Why is sweet an important taste?

A

It’s more important for plants cuz they need glucose to grow

93
Q

Why is bitter an important taste?

A

To avoid spoiled foods and because a lot of poisonous foods are bitter so you spit it out

94
Q

Why is umami an important taste?

A

Motivates protein intake

95
Q

What are some other tastes that are up for debate?

A

Oleogustus (fat) and water

96
Q

What 3 nerves collect sensory input from the tongue?

A

Facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves

97
Q

Taste pathway?

A

Taste buds -> nerve (facial or glossopharyngeal or vagus) -> medulla oblongata -> hypothalamus and amygdala OR thalamus and gustatory cortex

98
Q

What is olfaction?

A

The sense of smell caused by odorants

99
Q

Where is the olfactory mucosa?

A

Roof of the nasal cavity

100
Q

What makes up the olfactory mucosa?

A

Olfactory cells + epithelial supporting cells and basal stem cells

101
Q

What kind of cells are olfactory cells?

A

Neurons

102
Q

What are olfactory hairs?

A

Cilia embedded in a layer of mucus which have binding sites for odor molecules

103
Q

Anatomy of olfactory hair?

A

Embedded in layer of mucus, tapers at one end to an axon which collects into fascicles, exiting the nasal cavity via cribriform foramine in ethmoid bone

104
Q

How many receptor types in each olfactory cell?

A

1, therefore it only binds 1 odorant

105
Q

Where do olfactory fibers lead?

A

To olfactory bulbs where they synapse w/ dendrites called mitral cells and tufted cells

106
Q

What are olfactory tracts?

A

Bundles of axons from the mitral and tufted cells which end in the primary olfactory cortex, skipping the thalamus

107
Q

What are granule cells?

A

Neurons which inhibit mitral and tufted cells

108
Q

Olfactory nerves go where?

A

To the olfactory bulb (through the ethmoid bone) and then to the olfactory tract

109
Q
A
110
Q

How is the cochlear nerve activated?

A

A vibration in the air moves into the auditory canal, causes tympanic membrane to vibrate, causes ossicles to vibrate, causes vibrations in cochlea, activates cochlear nerve

111
Q

What is the pitch of a sound?

A

Frequency of sound waves, or how many times the tympanic membrane vibrates per second. Measured in hertz (Hz)

112
Q

Lower vibrations means what for pitch?

A

Lower pitch

113
Q

What is the loudness of a sound?

A

The amplitude of a vibration. Measured in decibels (dB). Over 90 is bad for your hearing

114
Q

What happens in the outer and middle ear?

A

They transmit sound to the inner ear

115
Q

What happens in the inner ear?

A

Vibrations are converted to nerve signals

116
Q

What is the auricle?

A

Part of the outer ear, it’s the rim, helix, base, and ear lobe. What you picture when you hear ear basically

117
Q

What is the external acoustic meatus?

A

Part of the outer ear. Collects soundwaves and brings them to the tympanic membrane

118
Q

What makes up the middle ear?

A

Auditory tube (NOT THE MEATUS. remember.), and the auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)

119
Q

What is the malleus often called?

A

The hammer

120
Q

What is the incus often called?

A

The anvil

121
Q

What is the stapes often called?

A

The stirrup

122
Q

What does the stapes do?

A

It taps the oval window, causing fluid to vibrate and activate mechanoreceptors, whhich activate the cochlear nerve

123
Q

Path of stapes’s effects?

A

Oval window -> scala vestibuli -> scala media -> scala tympani -> round window

124
Q

What can endolymph be compared to, and why?

A

Intracellular fluid due to high potassium levels

125
Q

What can perilymph be compared to, and why?

A

Cerebrospinal fluid due to low potassium levels

126
Q

What happens to the stereocilia of the inner ear when mechanoreceptors are activated?

A

They shift over, opening potassium channels, causing depolarization

127
Q

What is sensorineural deafness?

A

Death or damage to cochlear hair cells, so nerve cannot be activated

128
Q

What is conductive deafness?

A

When sound can’t pass through the outer and middle ear into the inner ear due to blockage

129
Q

Auditory pathway?

A

Auricle -> external auditory meatus -> tympanic membrane -> malleus -> incus -> stapes -> oval window -> auditory hair cells in the organ of corti, within the cochlear -> cochlear nerve -> medulla -> inferior colliculus -> thalamus -> primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe

130
Q

What is otitis media?

A

Middle ear infection due to throat illness travelling up the auditory tube

131
Q

What is otosclerosis?

A

Fusion of auditory ossicles due to inflammation (from recurring ear infections) that prevents their free vibration

132
Q

What is static equilibrium?

A

Perception of orientation of the head while the body is stationary

133
Q

What is dynamic equilibrium?

A

Perception of motion or acceleration

134
Q

What is linear acceleration?

A

A change in velocity in a straight vertical or horizontal line

135
Q

What is an angular acceleration?

A

A change in the rate of rotation

136
Q

What does the vestibular apparatus do?

A

Part of the inner ear, it maintains static and dynamic equilibrium

137
Q

What do semicircular ducts do?

A

They contain fluid which spins with movement and activates mechanoreceptors. Dynamic equilbrium

138
Q

What does the vestibule do?

A

Controls static equilibrium and linear acceleration (of dynamic equilbrium)

139
Q

What do otoliths do?

A

When you move your ehad, they push gel down which moves stereocilia of mechaboreceptors and activates potassium channels

140
Q

What is tinnitus?

A

Ringing of ears due to cochlear nerve degeneration

141
Q

What is meniere’s syndrome?

A

A disorder of the cochlear and semicircular canals which causes vertigo, nausea, and vomiting

142
Q

What does the auditory/eustachian tube do?

A

Aerate and drain middle ear

143
Q

What are the fluid-filled chambers of the cochlea?

A

Scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani

144
Q

Accessory organs of the eye?

A

Eyebrows, eyelids, eyelashes, conjunctiva, extrinsic muscles, lacrimal apparatus

145
Q

What is the conjunctiva?

A

The inner lining of the eyelids that covers the anterior surface of the eyeball. Very innervated and vascular

146
Q

What do extrinsic muscles do?

A

Pull eyeball to look at objects and maintain the eyeball’s shape

147
Q

What is strabismus?

A

Cross-eyedness due to eye rotating medially or laterally

148
Q

Neural components of the eye?

A

Optic nerve and retina

149
Q

What is the macula lutea and fovea centralis?

A

Part of the retina, they are the visual axis and the center of the macula respectively

150
Q

What is responsible for our finely detailed sight?

A

Fovea centralis of the macula

151
Q

What are rods?

A

Scotopic vision and peripheral vision but most importantly our light-dark vision

152
Q

What are cones?

A

Color and photopic vision but most importantly our color vision

153
Q

What length cones make red?

A

Long wave

154
Q

What length cones make green?

A

Medium wave

155
Q

What length cones make blue?

A

Short wave

156
Q

Why does colorblindness happen?

A

Congenital lack of one or more cones

157
Q

How do we see? What’s the basic pathway

A

Photoreceptor -> bipolar cell -> ganglion cell -> optic nerve

158
Q

What happens with our eyes in the dark?

A

Photoreceptors generate their own action potentials and release a neurotransmitter inhibiting the bipolar nerve, so it can’t activate the optic nerve

159
Q

What happens with our eyes in the light?

A

Photoreceptors are activated, inhibitory neurotransmitter is not released, meaning bipolar cell can release its neurotransmitter, activating ganglion cell, activating optic nerve

160
Q

What is rhodopsin?

A

Visual pigment of the rods

161
Q

What is photopsin?

A

Visual pigment of the cones. Different amino acid sequence than rhodopsin but otherwise really similar

162
Q

Visual pathway?

A

Light goes into cornea -> aqueous humor -> anterior segment -> lens -> vitreous humor -> cornea -> lens -> retina -> bipolar cells -> ganglion cells -> optic nerve -> optic chiasm -> thalamus -> visual cortex of occipital lobe

163
Q

Whtt does the optic chiasm do?

A

It takes half the nerves from each eye and mixes them. So pre-chiasm its 100% left and 100% right but post-chiasm its 50/50 and 50/50 so you don’t lose a whole eye’s vision if it gets damaged, you lose half of each

164
Q

What is near response?

A

Adjustment to close-range vision. Convergence of eyes, constriction of pupil, and accomodation of lens

165
Q

What are cataracts?

A

Lens fibers darken with age, fluid-filled bubbles and clefts full of debris appear between the fibers, clouding the lens

166
Q

What is glaucoma?

A

Elevated pressure within eye due to obstruction of scleral sinus or improper drainage of aqueous humor. Causes death of retinal cells bc of lack of oxygen

167
Q

Layers of eyeball from outermost to innermost?

A

Sclera, choroid, retina

168
Q

What are the components of the fibrous tunic?

A

Cornea and sclera

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