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A Master 2.0: You've got This!!! > Winemaking/vinification > Flashcards

Winemaking/vinification Flashcards

1
Q

How long have people been making wine?

A

at least 8,000 years

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2
Q

Who discovered Malolactic fermentation, when was it first introduced in winemaking?

A

Late 1950s

Émile Peynaud in France, Brad Webb in California, and others in Portugal—all simultaneously isolated the first malolactic bacteria culture

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3
Q

What year did Louis Pasteur discover yeast was responsible for fermentation?

A

1857

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4
Q

Who postulated in 1891 that bacteria was responsible for acid reduction in wine?

A

Hermann Müller (Thurgau)

in 1913 with Osterwalder, he demonstrated this principle successfully

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5
Q

In this year Tschellitscheff demonstrateed cold fermentation, and the Vaslin horizontal plate press was popularized

A

1945

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6
Q

When were the first active dry yeast cultures produced commercially?

A

1965

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7
Q

in what year did Château Haut Brion install temperature controlled stainless fermenters

A

1965

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8
Q

What is Flash Détente, and when was it introduced to the wine industry?

A

introduced 1993

thermovinification process consists of a fast heat treatment, with the grapes brought up to high temperature, followed by immediate cooling by pressure reduction.
significantly increases the quantity of extracted dyes, the polyphenols and the polysaccharides. The wines have more colour, and are fruitier and rounder, but with the same tannic structure.

heated rapidly to near-boiling temperatures (185 degrees Fahrenheit), then cooled rapidly using a vacuum.

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9
Q

what year were rotary fermenters introduced

A

1980, create juicier more extracted wines more easily

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10
Q

Who invented micro ox, what year was it implemented?

A

1991

Du Corneau

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11
Q

What year were Smith Patents introduced for Reverse Osmosis, for what reason?

A

1992, to remove volatile acidity

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12
Q

What is MOG

A

Material other than grapes

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13
Q

What is a primary aroma

A

Flavors and aromas present in the fruit

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14
Q

What is a secondary aroma

A

aromas arising from fermentation

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15
Q

what is a tertiary aroma

A

Aromas arising from aging and oxidation

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16
Q

aroma, color, and flavor compounds represent this % of a wines composition

A

only 3% of wine by weight.

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17
Q

Compounds other than Water and ethyl alcohol in wine

A

glycerol (a “sugar alcohol”), organic acids, unfermentable sugars, proteins, fusel alcohols (larger alcohols), phenolic compounds such as pigment and tannins, and aroma compounds like esters, terpenes, and thiols.

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18
Q

The compositional makeup of a bottle of wine

A
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19
Q

Rootstock other than vinifera

A

Vitis rupestris, Vitis riparia, Vitis berlandieri, Vitis labrusca, Vitis aestivalis, Muscardinia rotundifolia, and Vitis amurensis.

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20
Q

How many grape varieties are known?

A

over 10,000 grape varieties are known, with roughly 1,400 in commercial production.

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21
Q

What are unfermentable sugars called?

A

Most unfermentable sugars are pentoses, which means that their chemical structure includes five-carbon atoms, while glucose and fructose are hexoses (six-carbon sugars).

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22
Q

18-27 brix translates to this g/l of rs

A

180 to 270 grams per liter sugar before fermentation

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23
Q

What is the tool used on fermenting must to measure density

A

densiometers

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24
Q

In the field, this tool is used to measure sugar

in the winery, this tool is used to measure sugar

A

refractometer, which infers sugar concentration by measuring the refractive index of a liquid. In the winery, sugar content is measured with a hydrometer

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25
Q

In the EU, this is how potential alcohol is measured

A

In the EU, potential alcohol is estimated using the official conversion ratio of 16.83 grams per liter sugar yielding 1% ABV.

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26
Q

Primary organic acid that occurs in grapes

A

Tartaric

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27
Q

What does TA mean?

A

titratable acidity

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28
Q

What is the range of the PH scale

A

0 (very acidic) to 14 (very basic)

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29
Q

PH is technically this

A

Technically, pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (or protons) in a solution

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30
Q

Examples of Phenolics in wine

A

Tannins and anthocyanins

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31
Q

What are Catechins?

A

Catechins are small polyphenols that are extracted mostly from seeds and stems (though also from skins) and are largely responsible for bitterness in wine

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32
Q

Flavors and aromas in wine come from these

A

esters, terpenes, pyrazines, norisoprenoids, and thiols.

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33
Q

What is encuvage

A

After harvest, new wines go to barrel to age

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34
Q

Why would a winemaker use hyper ox

A

the juice turns brown initially but clarifies throughout fermentation. This allows the most susceptible compounds to be oxidized and discarded as lees, resulting in a finished wine that is potentially less fruity but more resilient against post-fermentation oxidation.

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35
Q

What is the enzyme created from Botrytis?

A

Laccase

causes rapid oxidation that is not deterred by sulfur dioxide or alcohol, unlike other enzymes. Botrytis imparts a specific flavor profile (ginger and saffron, accompanied by oxidation)

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36
Q

Why would white and rosé winemakers use whole cluster press

A

Whole-cluster pressing minimizes skin contact, resulting in clearer juice with fewer skin-derived compounds, including phenolics that may cause bitterness. The stems act as a press aid, improving juice yields and clarification.

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37
Q

Why would a winemaker use Pectolytic enzymes

A

break down pectin, may be added to speed up the extraction process

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38
Q

How long is juice left with skins in red wine production

A

10 to 21 days average

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39
Q

In thermovinification, must is heated to this temp for this long

A

between 140 to 180 degrees Fahrenheit for a period of 30 minutes to 24 hours,

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40
Q

most common type of press

A

Pneumatic presses

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41
Q

Different kinds of presses

A

A bladder press has an inflatable cylindrical bladder in the center of the press that expands radially, compressing the grapes symmetrically against the tank’s sides.

A membrane press is similar, but the inflatable bladder is located along one side of the tank and grapes are compressed against the other side.

A tank press is a fully enclosed membrane press that allows the winemaker to exclude oxygen for very reductive winemaking. This may be preferred for bright and clean white wine styles with delicate aromas, like popular styles of Sauvignon Blanc.

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42
Q

Ways to prevent oxidation during winemaking

A

dry ice and, with juice, sulfur dioxide

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43
Q

Methods of clarifications (fining or collage) in winemaking

A

débourbage, or settling overnight at cold temperature, followed by racking or decanting the juice off of the solids that have settled to the bottom of the tank.

filtration or centrifugation.

Another method of clarification is flotation, in which gas is pulsed through the juice, and the solids float to the top of the liquid.

Bentonite

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44
Q

The most common method for reducing potential alcohol

A

adding water to the must

Can also irrigate right before harvest

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45
Q

Ways of deacidifying wine all involve this

A

all involving adding salts that react with tartaric acid to form tartrate salts that settle out of the wine

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46
Q

The bacteria responsible for Malolactic fermentation

A

Oenococcus oeni

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47
Q

Do pathogens exist in wine?

A

NO

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48
Q

What is yeast?

A

single-celled eukaryotic fungi.

They require a carbon source, like sugar, for energy and a nitrogen source, like ammonia or amino acids, for growth and metabolism.

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49
Q

If a winemaker inocculates, it will be with one of these strains of yeast

A

Saccharomyces cerevisiae or, less often, Saccharomyces bayanus

Like 6 carbon sugars like glucose and fructose

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50
Q

Saccharomyces cerevisiae can withstand alcohol % of this, a unique characteristic

A

16% to 17%

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51
Q

Indigenous yeast varieties

A

Cryptococcus and Rhodotorula

genera Hanseniaspora (Kloeckera), Candida (Metschnikowia), and Torulaspora
more sensitive to sulfur dioxide (SO2) and alcohol

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52
Q

Spoilage yeast example

A

Pichia, which produces large levels of volatile acidity (vinegar)

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53
Q

Dominant yeast species at beginning of fermentation

A

Kloeckera apiculata

Kloeckera produces ethyl acetate

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54
Q

Spoilage yeasts that enter the picture after fermentation

A

Zygosaccharomyces, Saccharomycodes, and the notorious Brettanomyces bruxellensis (Dekkera bruxellensis).

Brettanomyces can metabolize sugars that Saccharomyces is not able to

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55
Q

compounds associated with medicinal, barnyard, and smoky aromas.

A

4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol

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56
Q

What is Acrolein taint

What causes it

A

Sensory Impact: Extremely bitter
Compound(s): Acrolein
Source: Lactic acid bacteria

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57
Q

Biogenic amines

What causes them

A

Sensory Impact: Nauseating
Compound(s): Histamine, tyramine, putrescine, other amines
Source: Lactic acid bacteria, especially Pediococcus

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58
Q

Ropiness

What causes it

A

Sensory Impact: Slimy texture, similar to egg white
Compound(s): Polysaccharides
Source: Lactic acid bacteria

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59
Q

Acetic acid bacteria

A

(AAB) convert alcohol to acetic acid (vinegar)

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60
Q

Types of AAB

A

Acetobacter, Gluconobacter, and Gluconacetobacter reside on grapes

only alcohol-tolerant Acetobacter persists in wine.

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61
Q

This compound is required for AAB (Acetic acid bacteria) to thrive

A

Oxygen is required for the growth and activity of acetic acid bacteria

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62
Q

What is pied de cuve

A

a portion of yeast-rich, already fermenting grape must, may be used to inoculate a fermentation—as with using a sourdough starter for baking

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63
Q

The first ten of the 12 steps of fermentation are called this

A

glycolysis, the process whereby yeast converts sugar into energy.

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64
Q

During fermentation this amount of CO2 is “evolved” or given off

A

equivalent to 60 times the volume of the must

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65
Q

Three distinct Phases of yeast during fermentation

A

lag phase, exponential phase, and stationary phase.

66
Q

Low levels of nitrogen in the must are associated with this

A

yeast’s production of hydrogen sulfide (H2S), a reductive thiol that smells like rotten eggs, and stuck fermentations

67
Q

What is YAN? How is it measured?

A

yeast-assimable nitrogen

the sum of ammonia and amino acids present in the juice, to assess whether the natural levels are sufficient for the yeast. The recommended levels have changed over the years, but YANs of 200 or more are generally considered ideal for yeast health.

68
Q

Winemakers can augment nitrogen-deficient musts with high levels of H2S by adding this

A

adding diammonium phosphate (DAP), an easy-to-metabolize form of nitrogen

69
Q

A happy mercaptan ;)

A

3-mercaptohexanol, a compound which commonly lends grapefruit and passionfruit aromas to Sauvignon Blanc.

70
Q

mercaptans likee methane and ethane thiol, with aromas described as putrefaction and as skunk, onion, and rubber, respectively are created by this

A

H2s (Hydrogen sulfides) not managed properly

71
Q

Yeast requires this temperature

A

45 to 95 degrees Fahrenheit, below which they will be inactive, and above which they will die

72
Q

White wine fermentation temp range

A

40s to mid-60s degrees Fahrenheit

73
Q

Fermentation temps for red wines

A

70s to the low 90s

74
Q

Lactic acid bacteria for Malolactic fermentation are inhibited by this:

A

low pH (below 3.2), high alcohol (above 14.5%), low temperature, and sulfites; as a result, some wines struggle to complete malolactic fermentation

75
Q

Lactic acid bacteria is very sensitive to this

A

Bacteria are sensitive to SO2, and even a small amount can inhibit their activity.

76
Q

Temperature ideal for Malolactic to occur

A

70 F

77
Q

Why Sulfur immediately after malolactic fermentation?

A

results in more retention of diacetyl and other aromas derived from malolactic fermentation

78
Q

Why do winemakers wait for primary fermentation to finish before starting malolactic fermentation?

A

The reason for this is two-fold: it avoids competition between yeast and bacteria, which could lead to a stuck fermentation, and it reduces the risk of high volatile acidity, since some lactic acid bacteria convert sugar to VA.

79
Q

Why delay malolactic fermentation in red wine?

A

For light-colored varieties such as Pinot Noir, delaying malolactic fermentation can help to maximize a finished wine’s color intensity.

80
Q

Wine storage temperature in a cuve, after fermentation

A

45 to 65 degrees Fahrenheit.

81
Q

oxygen is consumed more quickly in reds than in whites. True or False?

A

True, Because red wine contains more phenolic compounds

82
Q

How do sulfites and phenolics “Protect” a wine from oxidation

A

Sulfites and phenolics “protect” the wine since they are easily oxidized, which prevents the oxidation of aroma and flavor compounds.

83
Q

Where was Micro Ox first practiced?

A

Micro-ox was originally devised in Madiran to hasten the aging of ultra-tannic wines

84
Q

Difference between Micro Ox and Cliquage

A

Micro Ox: Mimics barrel aging
red-winemaking technique that introduces a slow dose of oxygen to a wine over time. For wines aged in tank, this technique mimics the oxidative benefits of barrel aging and is seen as a more economical alternative.

Cliquage: Mimics racking
similar technique in which a larger dose of oxygen is added to the wine to mimic the oxygen pickup that would be expected during racking, which is a labor-intensive process.

85
Q

oak tannins are called:

A

Oak tannins are called hydrolysable tannins or ellagitannins

86
Q

French oak has more than twice the tannin content of American oak: True or false

A

TRUE

87
Q

What is the whisky lactone?

A

Cis- and trans-oak lactone

They offer oaky, vanilla, coconut, sweet, and cocoa aromas to the wine

88
Q

Difference between Free and Bound SO2

A

Free SO2 is the portion of SO2 that has been added and is available to protect the wine from oxidation and microbial spoilage

89
Q

two forms of free sulfur exist in wine:

A

molecular and bisulfite (most is bisulfite)

90
Q

The legal limit (in most countries) for total SO2 allowed in dry wine is between

A

150 to 350 parts per million

91
Q

Stages of production that may require racking

A

In white winemaking, just after pressing and prior to fermentation to remove solids. If solids are desired, a portion may be added back to increase turbidity, or the wine may be racked “dirty,” with some solids included during racking.
After primary fermentation to remove the gross lees, or the large volume of lees generated during fermentation.
After malolactic fermentation to remove lees prior to the addition of SO2.
Periodically throughout aging for clarification and aeration.
During blending.
After fining to remove fining agents and/or prior to filtration.
After cold stabilization to remove tartrate crystals.

92
Q

What is soutirage à l’esquives?

A

Traditional method of racking in France

involves draining the wine through a valve on the face of the barrel. Then, a winch inverts the barrel, decanting the wine off the lees until sediment appears. A small, shallow cup called a tastevin was traditionally used to taste and assess the clarity of the wine during racking. This technique is said to result in slower, more precise racking but appears to be more oxidative than its modern counterpart.

93
Q

Vegan fining agents

A

PVPP and nylon
Bentonite is a naturally occurring, negatively charged Montmorillonite clay used to remove large, positively charged compounds, including proteins and polysaccharides, in juice and wine

94
Q

Where is fining most prevalent?

A

Fining is more prevalent in cooler regions, where fruit is harvested less ripe and tannins may be underripe or rustic.

95
Q

Legal limit for copper

A

0.5 and 1 milligrams per liter in the United States and EU, respectively

96
Q

What is copper casse?

A

Excess copper can increase the rate of oxidation and reduce varietal thiols, and high levels can cause a haze or red-brown precipitate in bottled white wines

97
Q

What is sterile filtration

A

clarifies wine or prevents microbial spoilage by physically removing yeast and bacteria

98
Q

Why are Most wines with residual sugar or malic acid sterile-filtered

A

prevent refermentation in bottle.

99
Q

Difference between depth and surface filtration methods.

A

Depth filtration:
the wine is passed through a relatively thick filter media often made of diatomaceous earth (DE or Kieselguhr) and/or cellulose (paper). The filter media forms a sort of maze, and as the wine passes through, larger particles are trapped. less prone to clogging than surface filtration methods. NOMINAL method, which means that the filter rating describes the filter’s average pore size. Some larger particles will also make their way through

Surface filtration:
wine is passed through a perforated plastic membrane with a uniform pore size. Surface filtration techniques are considered ABSOLUTE, which means that they filter out absolutely all of the particles larger than the filter rating. Usually depth filtration occurs first

0.2 to 10 microns is the range of filter for both methods

100
Q

This depth filtration method is typically used by large wineries

A

Plate and frame: A support screen is coated with DE, and wine that has been mixed with DE is passed through the screen. Because the filter media is constantly replenished, this is a good technique for wines with a large amount of solids. The initial setup is expensive, and it is messy to operate. This method is typically used by large wineries.

101
Q

This size of filter pore is used to ensure all bacteria and yeast is removed in sterile filtration

A

A pore size of 0.45 microns or smaller

102
Q

most technical and expensive of the filtration techniques

A

Crossflow

surface filtration in which the flow of the wine runs parallel to the filter surface, making it less likely to clog. That said, the wine is still often pre-filtered to avoid clogging.

103
Q

Methods of cold stabilization (removing tartrates or calcium bitartrate)

A

refrigeration, which involves holding the wine at very low temperature for several weeks. Afterward, the wine is racked, leaving the tartrates behind.

Potassium bitartrate crystals may be added to “seed” or hasten the crystallization process. (Crystals form more quickly on a crystalline surface.)

ion exchange and electrodialysis, which remove potassium and tartrate salts, respectively, from the wine. T

wine additives (including gum arabic, metatartaric acid, and mannoproteins) aimed at inhibiting crystallization.

104
Q

How does cold stabilization affect acidity of wine

A

The removal of tartrate salts necessarily decreases a wine’s titratable acidity. The effect on pH depends on the starting value: for wines with an initial pH above 3.8, the pH increases, and vice versa for wine with pH below 3.8.

105
Q

Ways of creating microbial stability before bottling

A

Lysozyme is an enzyme derived from egg whites that can be added to wine to prevent malolactic fermentation or to destroy lactic acid bacteria. Lysozyme will not protect against yeast or acetic acid bacteria.
Chitosan (No Brett Inside) is a positively charged fining agent derived from the exoskeleton of crustaceans that is used to remove yeast, including Brettanomyces.
Sorbic acid inhibits the growth of yeast, but lactic acid bacteria can convert it to a floral-scented compound responsible for so-called geranium taint.
Dimethyl decarbonate (DMDC), commonly known as Velcorin, kills yeasts and bacteria very effectively and can be added to wine on the bottling line as an alternative to filtration or higher levels of SO2. DMDC is very toxic to humans, but once it has been added to wine, it breaks down rapidly into harmless compounds. DMDC is used in sports drinks, juices, and other packaged beverages, but its use is controversial within the wine industry.
Pasteurization, or heating to high temperature, is another option for wine sterilization, but high heat has other deleterious impacts on wine and is not suitable for use in quality wine production. Pasteurization and other high heat methods occur at bottling.

106
Q

What is OTR?

A

OTR, or oxygen transmission rate) helps determine how a wine will age in bottle, where cork is the standard for aging expectations.

107
Q

This person first discovered yeast and bacteria in the 1680s

A

Antonie va Leeuwenhoek

108
Q

What is another name for KMW scale

A

Babo

Used in Austria, Italy and Eastern Europe

Assumes 15% of the solids in Brix are Non sugar, since Brix technically measures all solids in wine

109
Q

The Baumé scale used in France, Spain and Australia uses this, as opposed to sugar, as the reference

A

Salt, sodium chloride

110
Q

phenolic compounds are divided into these three groups

A

Flavonoids (three ring chemical structure)

non-flavonoids
Polyphenols

111
Q

Hydrolysable tannins are derived from this, and comprised of non flavonoids

A

Oak

112
Q

What are norisoprenoids

A

aromatic compounds that produce trimethyl-1,2-dihydronapthalene (TDN) and damascenone

113
Q

Machine harvested fruit has already been destemmed. T/F

A

True

114
Q

Champagne is whole cluster pressed. T/F

A

True

115
Q

This is added during fruit processing and storage to prevent oxidation

A

sulfur dioxide

116
Q

These esters contribute bubblegum, kirsch, banana and strawberry in carbonic maceration

A

Ethyl cinnamate
Isoamyl acetate

117
Q

Why add pectolytic enzymes during winemaking?

A

Break down pectin. Can speed up the extraction process.

118
Q

Two categories of wine press

A

Batch and continuous

119
Q

When and why would a winemaker use bentonite post pressing

A

prior to racking, to clarify juice.

120
Q

Is chaptalization legal in California

A

NO, but adding grape concentrate to must is legal

121
Q

Most common acid addition

A

Tartaric acid (it is stable)

122
Q

Deacidifying wine involves the addition of this

A

Salts. They react with tartaric acid to form tartrate salts that settle out of wine.

123
Q

What are exogenous tannins

A

Tannins that are added to wine, can come from many sources, even grapes

124
Q

Oenococcus Oeni bacteria is responsible for this winemaking process

A

Malolactic Fermentation

125
Q

These two yeasts refer to indigenous yeast and they are identical

A

Kloeckera Apiculata
Hanseniaspora Uvarum

126
Q

Winemakers refer to yeasts in these three genus:

A

Saccharomyces
Brettanomyces
Kloeckera

127
Q

Two different kinds of Saccharomyces strains

A

Cerevesiae
Bayanus

128
Q

these compounds produced by Brett are associated with barnyard and smoky aromas

A

4-ethylphenol
4-ethylguaicol

129
Q

When would a winemaker add DAP (diammonium phosphate) to must

A

When YAN is low, and Hydrogen sulfides are present, it addes nitrogen

130
Q

Two methods of arresting fermentation

A

Temperature reduction and
sulfur addition

Filtration or centrifugation, removing yeast

131
Q

methods of halting malolactic fermentation

A

Lysozyme
sulfur dioxide
filtration

132
Q

Benefits of sulfuring immediately afer malo

A

preserved diacetyl aromas and flavors

133
Q

one mature oak tree from over 80 year old trees creates this many barrels

A

between one and four

134
Q

Which is more watertight: American or French oak

A

American

135
Q

French oak must be split against the grain to prevent leakage, and only this % of the tree can be used

A

20%

136
Q

French oak species

A

Quercus Robur
Quercus Petraea (Quercus Sessilis)

137
Q

American oak is this species

A

Quercus Alba

138
Q

French Oak from these forests is tighter grained

A

Jupilles
Allier
Troncais

139
Q

French oak from these forests is medium grained

A

Nevers
Bertranges

140
Q

French oak from this forest is looser grained

A

Vosges

141
Q

Oak lactones are indefinitely released from wood in this kind of environment

A

Acidic

142
Q

Components of oak

A

Cellulose
Hemicellulose
Lignin
Tannin (hydrolysable, or ellagitannins)

143
Q

Oak tannin that imparts a green sawdust or cardboard aroma that decreases through seasoning and toasting

A

Trans-2-nonenol

144
Q

These flavor compounds are created during the toasting process

A

Guaiacol and 4-methylguaiacol (smoke, spice)
Syringol (smoky)
Cresols (leather)

145
Q

cellulose and hemicellulose break down in oak to create furfural and 5-methylfurfural, increasing perception of these flavors

A

Oakiness
Almond
Butterscotch
Caramel

146
Q

Cost per bottle of wine made with 100% new oak

A
147
Q

If wine is aged in a cave with relative humidity of higher than 70%, what happens to the alcohol?

A

It decreases through aging

If less than 70%, it increases

148
Q

SO2 binds with this compound and masks the effect of oxidation

A

acetaldehyde (bruised apple)

149
Q

Most sulfur in wine is this kind

A

Bisulfite, combats oxidation
(molecular bisulfite is antimicrobial)

150
Q

molecular So2 of this range is recommended for red and white wines to protect against microbial spoilage

A

0.5-0.8 ppm

151
Q

most adjust free sulfur levels to this ppm at bottling

A

25-50ppm

152
Q

What is KMBS

A

Potassium Metabisulfite
releases SO2 when dissolved in water

153
Q

Bentonite has this charge

A

Negative; used to remove large proteins and polysaccharides post fermentation. Also used prefermentation

154
Q

Copper fining removes this unpleasant compound

A

thiols and mercaptans

155
Q

What is DE in the context of filtration

A

Diatomaceous earth

156
Q

What are tartrates

A

Calcium bitartrate
potassium bitartrate

157
Q

Cold stabilization using refrigeration alters the acidity of a wine in this way

A

Removal of tartrate salts decreases a wines titratable acidity

158
Q

What is the name of the test to detect Brettanomyces or spoilage activity

A

Scorpion

159
Q

Stabilization agents

A

Lysozyme
Chitosan
Sorbic Acid
Dimethyl Decarbonate (DMDC, or velcorin)
Pasteurization

160
Q

Technical Cork

Synthetic Cork

A

DIAM

Nomacorc

161
Q

What is TCA

A

trichloroanisole

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