Psychology Test 3 Review (Vocab) (2) Flashcards
Cognition
The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Concept
A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, and people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categoris (as when comparing feathered creatures to protytypical bird, usch as a robin).
algorithm
a methodcial, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a partucal problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier–but also more error-prone–use of heuristics
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more erorr prone than algortihms
insight
A sudden realization a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconeption and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been succesful in the past
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, consious reasoning.
availability heursitic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because oftheir vividness), we presume such events are common.
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct–to overestimate the confident than correct–to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
belief perseverance
clinging to one’s initial coneptions after the basis on which they were formed has been sicredited
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements
creativity
the ability to produe novel and valuable ideas
convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the signle best solution
divergent htinking
expands the number of possible problem soluitons (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).
intelligence
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
general intelligence
denoted as g
a general intelligence factor that, accoriding to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore meausred by every task on an intelligence test
savant syndrome
a condition in which a person otheswise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions
intelligence t est
a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chornological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as an average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8
Stanford-Binet
the dwidely used American revision (by Terman at Standford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test.
intelligence quotient (IQ)
difined originally as the ration of mental age (ma) to chornoligcal (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ=MA/CA*100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance ofr a given age is assigned a score of 100
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scare (WAIS)
The WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains veral and performance (nonverbal) subtests
standardization
defining uniform testing procdeures and meaningful scores by comprison with the perfomrance of a pretested group
normal curve
the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and phsychological attributes. Mot scores fall near t he average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes
reliability
the extent to which a test yeilds consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, or on retesting
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
Content validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
predictive validity
the success with which a t est predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation betwene test scores and criterion behavior
crytalllized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
fuild intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulhood
intellectual disability
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence test score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life
down syndrome
a condition of mild to sever intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extrea copy of chromosome 21
heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability ofa trait may vary, depending on ther ange of populaitons and environments studied
stereotype threat
a self-confirming conern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
instinct
a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned thorught a species and is unleanred
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satistfy the need.
homeostasis
a tendancy to maintain a balanced or onstant intenal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
incentive
a postive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
Yerkes-Dodson law
The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which perfomance decreases.
Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before hoigher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active
glucose
the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger
Insulin
Hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose
Ghrelin
Hormone secreated by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry signals” to the brain.
Leptin
Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger.
Orexin
Hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus
PYY
Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain
Set Point
The point at which your “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When you body falls below this weight, increases hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore the lost weight.
Basal Metabolic Rate
The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure
Avhievement Motivation
A desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for rapidly attaining a high standard
Emotion
A response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience
James-Lange Theory
The theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our pphysiological response to emotion-arousing stimuli
Cannon-Bard Theory
The theory that an emotion-arousing timulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experiene of emotion
Two-Factor theory
the Schachter-Singer theory that to expedrience emotion one must (1) by physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.
Emotional Arousal
Elated excitement and panicky fear involve similar physiological arousal. That allows us to flip rapidly between the two emotions.
polygraph
a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological respnses (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes) accompanying emotions
facial feedback effect
the tendency of facial muscles states to trigger correspoinding feelings, such as fear, anger, or happiness
stress
the process by which we perceive and resond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases-alarm, resistance, exhaustion
tend and befreind
under stress, people (especially women) often provide supoprt to tohers (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).
health psychology
a subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine.
psycholoneuroimmuniology
the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health
coronary heart disease
the clogging of the vessels that noursih the heart muscle; the leading causes of death in many developed countries
Type A
Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and angre-prone people
Type B
Friendman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people
Catharsis
In psychlogy, the idea that “realising” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges
Coping
alleviating stress using emtional, cognitive, or behavioral methods
Problem-focues coping
attempting to alleviate stress directly-by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor
emtion-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emiotan needs related to one’s stress reaction
learned helplessness
The hoplessness and passive resignation and animal or human leanrs when unavle to avoid repeated aversivie events.
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate
intenal locus of control
the perception that you control your own fate
self-control
the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards
aerobic exercise
sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; may also alleviate depression and anxiety
feel-good, do-good phenomenon
people’s tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood
positive psychology
the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and vitures that enable individuals and communities to flourish
subjective well-being
self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being )for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people’s quality to life
adaptation-level phenomenon
our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience
relative deprivation
the perception that one is worse off to those with whom one compares onself
personality
an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking feeling, and acting
psychodynamic theoris
view personality with a focu on the unconsicous and the importance of childhood experiences
psychoanalysis
Freuds theory of personality that attributes thorughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the thechniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions
unconscious
according to freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologits, information processing of which we are unaware
free association
in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whaever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrasing
id
a reservoir of unconsious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification
ego
the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that , acording to Freud, mediates amon the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego opertaes on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will relaistically bring pleasure rather than pain.
superego
the part of personality that, accoriding to freud, represents internalzed ideals and provides standards for judgement (the conscience) and for future aspierations
psycholsexual stages
the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erorgenous zones
Oedipus complex
according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father
identification
the process by which accroding to Freud, children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos
fixation
accoding to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psycho-sexual stage, in which conflicts wer unresolved
defense mechanism
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism the banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
collective unconscious
Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history
projective test
a personality test, such as the Rorshach, that provides ambigous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics
Rorschach Inkblot Test
the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorshcahc; seeks to indetify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
humanistic theories
view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth
self-actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs aremet and self0seteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential
unconditional positive regard
according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person
self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings aobut ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”
trait
a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as a ssessed by self-report inventories and peer reports
personality inventory
a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
The most widely used researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes
empiracally derived test
a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups
social-cognitive perspective
views behavior as influenced by the interction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context
reciprocal determination
the interacrting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment
self
in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions
spotlight effect
overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and bluders (as if wer presume a spotlight shines on us).
self-esteem
one’s feelings of high or low self-worth
self-efficacy
one’s sense of competence and effectiveness
self-serving bias
a readiness to perceie oneself favorably
narcisism
excessive self0love and self-absorption
individualism
giving priority to one’s own goals over grouop goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly
