Psychology Test #2 (Chp. 4-8) Flashcards
developtmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.
Zygote
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.
Embryo
The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.
Fetus
The developing human organism from about 9 weeks after conception to birth.
Teratogens
(literally, “monster maker”) agents, such as toxins, chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal developtment and cause harm
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Phsyical and cognitive abnormalies in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heave drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable fascial misproportions.
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familirity with repeated exposure to a visual stiumulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
Maturation
Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.
Critical Period
an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal developtment.
Cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
Schema
A concept or framework that organizes and inteprets information
Assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.
Accommodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.
Sensorimotor Stage
in Piaget’s theory, that stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
Object permanence
The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.
Preoperational stage
in Piaget’s theory, that stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.
Conservation
the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number reamin as the same despite changes in the forms of objects.
Egocentrism
in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.
Theory of mind
people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states-about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and behaviors these might predict.
Concrete Operational Stage
in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive developtment (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operaions that enable them to think logically about concrete events
Formal Operational Stage
in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive developtment (normally beginning at 12 years) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.
Stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers the infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.
Attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing disress on seperation
Imprinting
the process by which certain animals from attachments during a critical period very early in life.
temperanment
a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
Basic trust
according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.
Adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
Puberty
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.
Identity
our sense of self; accoring to Erickson, the adolescents’ task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.
Social identity
the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.
Intimacy
in Erickson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relatinships; a primary developtmental tak in late adolescence and early adulthood.
Emerging adulthood
for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridgin the gap between adolescent dependence and full independce and responsible adulthood.
Menopause
the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.
Cross-sectional study
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
Longitudinal Study
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.
Social Clock
the culturallyl preferred timing of social events such as a marriage, parenthood, and retirement.
Gender
socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female
Aggresion
physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone
X chromosome
the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two XX chromoes by males have one XY. An X chromosome from each parent makes a female child.
Y chromosome
The sex chromosome found in men. When paired with and X chromosome from the mother, it makes a male child.
Testosterone
the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and developtment of the male sex characteristic during puberty.
Puberty
The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.
Primary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.
Seconday sex Characteristics
non reproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality and body hair.
Menarch
the first menstrual period
Gender Role
a set of expected behaviors for male or females
Role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
Gender Identity
our sense of being male or female
Social learning theory
the theory tha twe learn socal behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished
Gender typing
the acquisition of traditional masculine or feminine role.
Transgender
an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex.
Estrogens
sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman females mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.
Sexual Response Cycle
the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson- excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
Refractory Period
a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.
Sexual Dysfunction
a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by human immunadeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections.
Sexual Orientation
an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual ortientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or both (bisexual orientation)
Learning
the processes of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.
Associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
Stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response
Cognitive learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.
Classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.
Behaviorism
the view of psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without refrence to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elictis no response before conditioning.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally naturally and automatically-triggers a response (UR).
Conditioned Response (CR)
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an uncoditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
Acquisition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when onel inks a neutral stimulus and an uncoditioned stimulus so that the nautral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
Extinction
the dimishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
Spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Descriminition
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal and unconditioned stimulus.
Operant conditionng
a type of learning in which behavios is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or dimished if followed by a punisher.
law of effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviours followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Operant chamber
(AKA Skinner Box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animl;s rate of her pressing or key pecking.
Reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event strengthens the behavior it follows.
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
Negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing ngative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the respnse. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishement)
Primary reinforcer
an innately reinforceing stimulus, such as one that satifies a biological need.
Conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.
Continous reinforcement
renforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
Reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.
Partial (intermittent( reinforcement)
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slowerr acquistition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continous reinforcement.
Fixed-raito schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specidfied number of responses.
Variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
Punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior it follows.
Respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic responseto some stimulus
Operant behavior
behavior that operates on the enviornment, producing consequences
Cognitive map
a mental respresentation of the layout of one’s eviornment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
Latent Learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
observational learning
learning by observing others.
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may anable imitation and empathy.
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only idetify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.
encoding
the processing of informaiton into the memory system-for example by extracting meaning.
storage
ther retention of encoded information over time.
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage.
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as a seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.
Long-Term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditoryand visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
Explicit memory
memory facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory)
Effortful processing
encoding that requires attendtion and conscious effort.
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of indidential information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
implicit memory
retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory)
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
Echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automaically.
Mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved trough massed study or practice.
Testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhaced learning.
Shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on a structure or appearance or words.
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield best retention.
Hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally signicant moment of event.
priming
the activition, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primary effect) in a list.
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one’s past.
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
Misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution). Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.
déjà vu
that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
