chapters 1-3 and appendix a vocab Flashcards
structuralism
Early school of thought promotoed by Wundt and Titchener; used intrspection to reaveal the structure of the humand mind.
funtionalism
Early School of thought promotoed by James and influenced by Farwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes funciton-how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
Behaviorism
The view of psychology (1) should be and objective science that (2) studies behavior without refrence to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agreee with (1) but not with (2).
Humanistic Psychology
Historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people.
Cognitive Neuroscience
The interdisciplinary studey of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Psychology
The science of behavior and mental processes
Nature-Nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make the development of psychological traists and behaviors. Today’s psychological science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interactions of nature and nurture.
Natural Selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passes on to succeedding generations
Levels of Analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.
Biopsychosocial Approach
and integrated approach that incorportaes biological, psychological, and social-cultural lvels of analysis.
Basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
Applied Research
Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
Counseling Psychology
A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or relationships) and in achieveing greater well-being.
Clinical Psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.
Psychiatry
A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatements as well as psychological therapy.
Positive psychology
The scientific study of human functioning, with gials of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.
Hindsight bias
The tendency to believe after learning and outcome, that one should have forseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon).
Critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
Theory
and explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
Hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theroy .
Operational Definition
a statement, of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For examples, human intelligence may be operationally defined as “what an intelligence test measures.”0
Replication
Repeating the essence of research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participatns and circumstances.
Case Study
an observation techinque in which one person is studied in depth in the hope revealing universal principles.
Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occuring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
Survey
A technique of rascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
Population
all those in a group being studied, form which samples may be drawn (NOTE: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)
Random Sample
a sample of fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
Correlation
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
Correlation coefficient
a stastistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
Experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates on or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependt variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aimas to control other relevant factors.
Experimental Group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatement, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
Control Group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatement.
Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.
Double-blind procedure
and experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug evaluation studies
Placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of the inert substance or condition, which the recipeient assumes is an active agent.
Indepent Variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
Confunding Variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.
Dependent Variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
Informed consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to decide them whether they wish to participate.
Debriefing
the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
Testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
SQ3R
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve,
Biological Psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychological psychologists
Neuron
A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
Dendrites
A neuron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
Axon
The neron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.
Myelin Sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next.
Glial Cells (glia)
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking
Action Potential
A neural impulse; a brief electrial charge that travels down an axon.
Threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
Synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.
Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers the cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurontransmitters travel across the synapse and bind the receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
Endorphins
“morphine within”–natural, opiate-like nuerotramitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
Nervous system
the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system.
Central Nervous System
The brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system, to the rest of the body.
Nerves
bundled axons that form neural “cables” connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information form the sensory receptor to the brain and spinal cord
Motor (efferent) neurons
nerons that carry outgoing information form the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
Interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate interanally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
Somatic Nervous System
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nercous system
Automatic Nervous System
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
Sympathetic Nervous System
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing in energy in stressul situations
Parasympathetic Nervous System
The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
Reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee- jerk response
Endocrine System
the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Hormones
Chemical messenger that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
Adrenal Glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepineprhine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
Pituitary Gland
the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pitutary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
Lesion
Tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brian tissue.
Brainstem
the oldes part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survial functions.
Medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Thalamus
the brain’s sensory router, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortez and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
Electroencephalogran (EEG)
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping acroos the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
A visual display of brain activiy that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.
MRI (magnetic resonance imagining)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.
fMRI (functional MRI)
a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing sucessive MRI scans, fMRI scans whos brian functions.
Reticular formation
a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and plays and important role in controlling arousal.
Cerebellum
the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinatng movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.
Limbic System
Neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.
Amygdala
Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion.
Hypothalamus
a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
Cerebal Cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells convering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.
Frontal Lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements
Parietal Lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying a the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.
Occipital Lobes
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information fron the visual fields
Temporal Lobes
Portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.
Motor Cortex
an area a the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
Sensory Cortex
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and process body touch and movement sensations.
Association Areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in promary motor or senrsory funtions; rather, they are involved in higher mental funcitons such as as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
Plasticity
the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.
Neurogensis
The formation of new neurons
Corpus Callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
Split Brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum connecting them)
Enviornment
Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.
Behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and enviornmental influences on behavior.
Chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
DNA
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.
Genes
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
Identical Twins
twins who develop from a single (monozygotic) fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.
Fraternal Twins
twins who develop from separate (dizygotic) fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal enviornment.
Interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as enviornment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).
Epigenetics
The study of enviornmental influences on gene expression that occur without DNA change.
Evolutionary Psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
Natural Selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passes on to succeedding generations
Mutation
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
Consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our enviornment
Cognitive neuroscience
The interdisciplinary studey of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Dual Processing
the principle that information is often simultanoulsy processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
Blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus consciously experiencing it
Selective Attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
Change blindness
failing to notice changes in the enviornment
Circadian Rhytm
the biological clock, regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24 hour cycle.
REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
Alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of relaxed, awake state
Sleep
periodic, natural loss of consciousness-as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
Hallucinations
false sensory experience, such as seeing something in the absence of external visual stimulus
Delta Waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that responds to light-sensitive retinal proteins; causes pineal glands to increase or decrease production of melatonin, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
Insomnia
Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
Sleep Apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessation of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.
Night Terrors
a sleep disoder characterized by high arousal and an apperance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep,
dream
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagry, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer’s delusional acceptance of the contnt and later difficulties remembring it.
manifest content
According to Freud, the remembred story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).
latent content
According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).
Why do we sleep?
Protect: Sleep kept people out of harms way protected them.
Helps Recuperate: Allows for neurons to rebiuld and heal
restore and rebuild memories: helps to recall tasks performed during the day.
Sleep feeds creative thinking: boosts learning and thinking
sleep supports growth: pituitary gland releases a growth hormone necessary for muscle development
Why we dream
to satisfy our own wishes file away memories to develop and preserve neural pathways to make sense of neural static Cofnitive Development
REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).
Hypnosis
a scoial interaction in which one person (the ypnotist) suggests to naother (the subject) that certain perception, feeling, thoughts, or behaviors will spontanously occur.
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the sub ject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
dissociation
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
psychoactive drugs
a chemical substance that alters perception and moods
tolerance
with repeaded use, achieving the desired effect requires larger doses (exept in marijuana)
addiction
compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences
withdrawal
the discomfort and distres that follow discontinouing the use of an addictive drug
physical depndence
a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symtoms when the drug is discontinued.
psychological dependecne
a pscyhological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negatice emotions
depressants
durgs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body function
alcohol dependence
popular known as alcoholism). Alcholo use marked by tolerance, withdrawal if suspended, nd a drive to continue use.
barbituarates
drug that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but imparing memory and judgment.
opiates
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heorin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lesseninig pain and anxiety.
stimulants
drug (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, Extasy, and methamphetamine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
amphetamines
drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associatiated energy and mood changes.
nicotine
a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco
methamphetamine
a powerfully addictive durg that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.
ectasy (MDMA)
A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.
hallucinogens
psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
near-death expericen
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as thorugh cardiac arrst); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
THC
The major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a veriety of effect, including mild hallucinations
Alcohol
Depressent
initial high followed by relaxation and disnhitbition
depression, memory loss, organ damage, impaired reactions
Heroin
Depressant
Rush of Euphoria, relief from pain
depressed physiology, agonizing withdrawal
Caffeine
Stimulant
Increased alertness and wakefulness
anxiety, restlesness, and insomnia in high doses; uncomfortable withdrawal
Methamphetamine
Stimulant
Euphoria, alertness, energy
sense of well-being
heart disease, cancer
cacaine
Stimulant
rush of euphoria, confidence, energy
cardiovascula stress, suspiciousness, depressive crash
Nicotine
Stimulant
arousal and relaxation, sense of well-being
heart disease, cancer
Extasy (MDMA)
Stimulant;Mild hallucinogen
emotinal electation disinhibition
dehydration, overheating depressed mood, impaired conginitive and immune functioning
Marijuana
Mild hallicinogen
enhanced senstion, relief of pain distortion of time, relaxation
impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychlogical disorders, lung damage fro msmoke
Mode
the most frequently occuring score(s) in a distribution
Mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
Median
the middle score in distribuion; half the scores are above it and half are below it
Range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard Deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
Normal Curve
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.
Correlation Coefficient
a stastistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).
Regression toward the mean
the tendancy for extreme or unsual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.
Cross-sectional study
research in which people of different ages are compared with one another
Longitudinal Study
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period of time.
Statistical Significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
Wilhelm Wundt
Father of Psychology in Germany’s U of Leipzig in December 1879
Edward Bradford Titchener
Wundt’s student, aimed to discover minds structure enganed peole in introspection(describe thougts, feeling.. etc.)
Mary Whiton Calkins
Mentored by William James, and become a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association in 1905.
William James
Legendary Teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psych9logy text. Leader of fucntionlism
Margaret Floy Washburn
The first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D., Washburn synthesized animal bechavior research in The animal mind, and became APA
second female president in 1921.
John B Watson
Wotking with ayner, Watson championed psycology as the science of behavior and demonstrate conditioned responses on a baby who beame famous as “little albert”
BF Skinner
A leading behaviorist, Skinner rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior
Sigmund Freud
The controversial ideas of his famed personality theorist and therapist have influced humanity self understanding. Behaviorist
Carl Roger
Leader of Humanistic Psychology
Abraham Maslow
Leader of Humanistic Psychology
Plato
Beloved certain ideas were inborn
Aristotle
We all start as blank slate, all knowledge comes from outside senses first.
