Organisation of the Human Body Flashcards
What are the 6 levels of organisation of the body?
- Chemical
- Cellular
- Tissue
- Organ
- Organ System
- Organismic
What are the 4 types of tissue?
- epithelial
- muscular
- connective
- nervous
What 4 major elements make up 96% of body mass?
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
What are the 9 lesser elements that make up 3.9% of the body’s mass?
calcium
phosphorus
potassium
sulfur
sodium
chlorine
magnesium
iodine
iron
What are the 13 trace elements that make up 0.1% of the body’s mass?
aluminium
boron
chromium
cobalt
copper
fluorine
manganese
molybdenum
selenium
silicon
tin
vanadium
zinc
What is Ca used for in the body?
- bones and teeth
- muscle contraction
- nerve transmission
- release of hormones
- blood clotting
What is P used for in the body?
- bones and teeth
- nucleic acids and proteins
- forms part of ATP
What is K used for in the body?
- necessary for many cellular chemical reactions (e.g.: muscular contractions and nerve impulses).
What is S used for in the body?
- component of some vitamins and many proteins
What is Na used for in the body?
- needed for many chemical reactions in extracellular fluid
- plays a role in water balance
- nerve impulses
- muscle contractions
What is Cl used for in the body?
- needed for many chemical reactions in the extracellular fluid
What is Mg used for in the body?
- mainly found in bones
- needed for activity of more than 300 enzymes in the body
What is I used for in the body?
- needed for the synthesis of thyroid hormones
What is Fe used for in the body?
- component of haemoglobin molecule
Which vitamins are fat soluble?
vitamins A, D, E and K
Where are fat-soluble vitamins stored?
stored in the liver and fatty tissues
Which vitamins are water-soluble?
vitamins B and C
Where are water-soluble vitamins stored?
they’re not stored by the body and are easily lost through excretion (they’re also more sensitive to the effects of storing and cooking).
What are 5 important functions of water in the body?
- solvent
- high specific heat capacity
- high latent heat of evaporation
- metabolite (hydrolysis and condensation reactions)
- transport medium (adhesion and cohesion)
Cytology
= the study of cells, which are the basic structural and functional units of the body
What 3 types of lipids are present in the plasma membrane?
- phospholipids
- glycolipids
- cholesterol
What is the purpose of glycolipids in the plasma membrane?
- cell communication
- growth
- development
- cell identity markers that enable them to recognise foreign cells
What is the purpose of phospholipids in the plasma membrane?
- impermeable to most water-soluble molecules (due to the hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads that cause a bilayer to form).
What is the purpose of cholesterol in the plasma membrane?
help to strengthen the membrane
What are the 2 types of proteins scattered in the phospholipid bilayer?
integral and peripheral proteins
What are integral proteins?
extend through the phospholipid bilayer to create channels, which allow for the passage of materials in and out of the cell (i.e.: glycoproteins which are cell identity markers)
What are peripheral proteins?
loosely attached to the surfaces of the membrane and they can separate easily from it
What is cytosol?
a thick, transparent, gel-like fluid made up of mainly water (but also contains solids, solutes and vacuoles, which house cellular wastes and secretions).
Mitochondria
- “powerhouses” of the cell
- where ATP is generated through cellular respiration
Ribosomes
- where proteins are made
- some are free ribosomes (in cytoplasm) and some are attached to to the ER.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
- network of fluid-filled cisterns (channels or tubules) that coils through the cytoplasm
- provides a large surface area for chemical reactions
- transports molecules within the cell
Rough ER
- ribosomes attached
- provides a site for protein synthesis
- temporarily stores new protein molecules
- participates in the formation of glycoproteins
- works with the Golgi complex to make and package molecules that are secreted from the cell
Smooth ER
- no ribosomes attached (so no proteins made here)
- provides a site for synthesis of certain lipids (fatty acids, phospholipids, steroids)
- provides a site for detoxification of chemicals (alcohol, pesticides, carcinogens)
Golgi apparatus
- made of flattened cisterns with tiny vesicles attached to their edges
- processes, sorts and packages proteins and lipids for delivery to plasma membrane
- forms lysosomes and secretory vesicles
Lysosomes
- these vesicles are formed inside the Golgi apparatus
- contain powerful digestive enzymes and are able to break down and recycle many different molecules
- help recycle cell’s own worn-out structures, as well as foreign substances
Peroxisomes
= vesicles containing enzymes that detoxify any potentially harmful substances in cell
Centrosomes
- organise microtubules in non-dividing cells that help support and shape cell and move substances
- form mitotic spindle in dividing cells
- contain centrioles
Centrioles
- found within centrosomes
- play a role on cell division, and the formation and regeneration of flagella and cilia
Nuclear envelope
= double-membrane of phospholipid bilayers that contain nuclear pores to allow movement of molecules into and out the nucleus
Nucleolus
= where ribosomes are assembled in a spherical body made of proteins within the nucleus
Chromatin
= a mass of chromosomes that condenses and coils during cell division (only present in cell that aren’t dividing)
Genes
= the hereditary units of the cell, which control its structure and activity (arranged in chromosomes)
DNA replication
= occurs within the nucleus of the cell and is necessary for cell division
–> results in 2 identical DNA copies
Gene expression
= process in which a gene’s DNA is used as a template to synthesis a specific protein (transcription and translation phases)
Somatic cell division
= body replacing dead/injured cells or to produce new cells for growth
–> through mitosis, a single diploid parent cell duplicates itself to produce two identical daughter cells
Reproductive cell division
= occurs when a new organism is produced
–> through meiosis (a process of nuclear division), haploid sperm and egg cells are produced, and these form a new organism
What are the 4 different cell shapes that make up epithelial tissue?
- squamous
- cuboidal
- columnar
- transitional
What are the 4 types of connective tissues?
- areolar (loose)
- adipose (loose)
- dense (dense)
- other (specialist)
What are the 3 types of muscle?
- skeletal
- cardiac
- smooth (visceral)
Areolar connective tissue
- A loose weave of tissue acting as a packing between tissues and functions as support.
- Holding body fluids.
- Defence (against infection via white cells and macrophages).
- Storing nutrients.
Adipose connective tissue
- Closely packed adipocytes or fat cells that insulates.
- Protects organs.
- Acts as a reserve fuel supply.
What are the 11 organ systems?
- integumentary (skin, hair and nails)
- skeletal
- muscular
- nervous
- endocrine
- respiratory
- cardiovascular
- lymphatic and immune
- digestive
- urinary
- reproductive
Adipose connective tissue
- Closely packed adipocytes or fat cells that insulates.
- Protects organs.
- Acts as a reserve fuel supply.
Dense connective tissue
- Parallel arrangement of collagen fibres with few elastin fibres so resists force in one direction.
- Forms tendons to attach muscle to bone and ligaments that attach bone to bone.
What are the 3 types of cartilage?
- hyaline
- elastic
- fibrocartilage
Hyaline cartilage
- Covers ends of long bones as articular cartilage
- Supports most respiratory system passages
- Makes up embryonic skeleton before bone forms
Elastic cartilage
- Maintains shape but allow flexibility
Fibrocartilage
- Cross between hyaline and dense regular connective tissue
- Absorbs compressive forces (e.g.: intervertebral disc, pubic symphysis, menisci of knee)
Cartilage
= a resilient, strong connective tissue that is less hard and more flexible than bone
Ligament
= a tough band of connective tissue that attaches bone to bone
Tendon
= a tough band of connective tissue that attached muscle to bon
What are (7) reasons for cellular level pathologies?
- Lack of oxygen
- Physical injury
- Chemical injury
- Infections
- Injury as a result of immune response
- Injury as a result of genetic defect
- Injury as a result of nutritional imbalances
What occurs at tissue level with pathology (5)?
- Oedema
- Jaundice
- Inflammation
- Infection
- Cellular death/necrosis
What vitamin is required for protein synthesis
Vitamin K
What is required for collagen synthesis?
Vitamin C
What is the function of the nucleus?
- contains genetic info
- site of initiation of protein synthesis
What is the function of the nucleolus?
production of ribosomes
What is the function of the ribosome?
manufactures proteins
What is the function of the rough ER?
- studded with ribosomes
- becomes the factory of protein synthesis
What is the function of the smooth ER?
- lipid synthesis
- metabolises toxins
- calcium store
What is the function of the lysosome?
destruction of debris and waste products
What is the function of the mitochondria?
provides energy
What is the function of the golgi complex?
processes newly made proteins and transports them to their destination within the cell
What is the function of the cytoskeleton?
- provides strength and rigidity to the cell
- transport
- motility
What is the function of the membrane?
encloses the cell
What are the purposes of glycolipids?
- helps cell communication
- growth development
- detects harmful foreign cells
Epithelial tissue
- covers body surfaces
- lines hollow organs
- cavities and ducts
- forms glands
Connective tissue
- support
- blind and protect the body and its organs
Nervous tissue
- excitable
- specialised for rapid signal conduction
- initiates and transmits nerve impulses
Muscular tissue
- excitable and specialised for contraction
- provides movement and force
Ground substance (connective tissue)
- loose flexible gel (mainly water and proteoglycans
- allows diffusion of materials and dissolved substances
Clast cells
breakdown connective tissue
Cyte cells
maintain, recycle, breakdown ground substance
Fibres present in connective tissue:
- collagen
- elastin
What are (5) functions of connective tissue?
- connecting body parts
- binding and supporting
- protecting
- insulating
- storing
Areolar connective tissue
- a loose weave of tissue acting as a packaging between tissues, and functions as support
- holding body fluids
- defence (against infection via white cells and macrophages)
- storing nutrients
Adipose connective tissue
- closely packed adipocytes or fat cells that insulates
- protects organs
- acts as a reserve fuel supply
Dense connective tissue
- parallel arrangement of collagen fibres with few elastin fibres (so resists force in one direction)
- forms tendons to attach muscle to bone and ligaments that attach bone to bone
Hyaline cartilage
- covers ends of long bones as articular cartilage
- support most respiratory system passages
- makes up embryonic skeleton before bone forms
Elastic cartilage
maintains shape but allow flexibility (e.g: ear)
Fibrocartilage
- cross between hyaline and dense regular connective tissue
- absorbs compressive forces (e.g: intervertebral disc, pubic symphysis, menisci of knee)
What is the process by which a parent cell duplicates itself into 2 identical daughter cells?
Mitosis
What happens during interphase?
a cell grows and DNA replicates itself
Simple squamous epithelium consist of what?
a single layer of flat cells
Membranes
sheets made up of different tissue layers
