The Endocrine System Flashcards
What is an active form of Vitamin D that also raises blood calcium levels by increasing absorption of calcium from digestive tract?
Calcitriol
Name some glands in the endocrine system.
- pineal gland
- hypothalamus
- pituitary gland
- parathyroid glands
- thyroid gland
- thymus
- adrenal glands
- pancreas
- kidneys
- testes
- ovaries
What raises blood calcium levels by increasing bone resorption?
PTH (parathyroid hormone)
What does parathyroid hormone (PTH) do?
increases blood calcium level
What does calcitonin (CT) do, and where is it secreted from?
it has the potential to decrease blood calcium level; released from the thyroid gland
Name the hormones responsible for muscle relaxation.
Relaxin and progesterone
Exocrine gland
secrete substances into ducts that carry substances into cavities or to outer surfaces of the body
What are (4) examples of exocrine glands?
- sudoriferous (sweat)
- sebaceous (oil)
- mucous
- digestive
Endocrine glands
secrete hormones into extracellular space around their cell which is diffused into capillaries and transported by blood to target cells throughout the body
What are (6) functions of the endocrine system?
- growth
- development
- reproduction
- metabolism
- homeostasis
- apoptosis
What (2) types of hormones are synthesised from steroid hormones?
- sex
- adrenal cortex
What (2) hormones are synthesised from amino acids?
- insulin
- oxytocin
What is hormone secretion controlled by?
- neural stimulation
- chemical changes in blood
- release of other hormones
What are some examples of hormones secreted anteriorly?
- Human Growth Hormone (hGH) or somatotrophin
- Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
- Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
- Prolactin (PRL) or Lactogenic Hormone
- Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
- Melanocyte stimulating Hormone (MSH)
What are some examples of hormones secreted posteriorly?
- Oxytocin (OT)
- Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) or vasopressin
Hypothalamus
releases hormones (oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone/vasopressin) that controls the pituitary gland.
Pituitary gland
attached to the hypothalamus by a stalk. Has anterior and posterior portion.
Pineal gland
- located in the epithalamus of the brain
- secretes Melatonin
Thyroid gland
- butterfly shaped found wrapped around trachea just below the larynx
- secretes Thyroxine (T4), Tri-iodothyronine (T3) and Calcitonin.
Parathyroid glands
secretes Parathormone (PTH)
Thymus gland
- located in the thorax behind sternum and between lungs
- secretes Thymic Hormones for T cells
Pancreas
– 5 to 6 inches long found behind and slightly below the stomach
- has small patches called pancreatic islets of Langerhans
- both an endocrine and exocrine glands
- secretes Glucagon from alpha cells, Insulin from beta cells, somatostatin from delta cells
Adrenal glands
- above the kidneys
- comprise of 2 significantly different parts (adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla).
Adrenal cortex
Secretes:
- Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
- Glocucorticoids (mainly conrtisol)
- Sex hormones (mainly androgens and estrogens).
Adrenal medulla
Secretes:
- Epinephrine/ Adrenaline
Norepinephrine/Noradrenaline
Ovaries and testes
- Sex glands
- Ovaries secrete Progesterone and Estrogens including estriol, estrone, estradiol
- Testes secrete Testosterone
What are 4 effects of long-term stress?
- HTN
- Hyperglycemia
- Wasting of muscles
- Suppression of immune system
What are 5 red flags that signal common pathologies of the endocrine system?
- Virilizations and hirsutism in women
- Delayed puberty
- Failure to thrive – lethargy, depression, weight loss, weakness
- Severe headaches
- Recurring headaches with diaphoresis, tachycardia and palpitations
What are some common pathologies of the endocrine system?
- Depression
- Lethargy
- Muscle weakness
- Weight changes
- Changes in heat tolerance
- Increased urination and thirst
- Palpitations
- Headache
- Coarsening of features
What are 2 common pathologies of the adrenal glands?
- Addison’s disease
- Cushing’s syndrome
What is a common pathology of the parathyroid glands?
Calcium deficiency
What is a common pathology of the pineal gland
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
What are 2 common pathologies of the pituitary gland?
- Acromegaly
- Diabetes Insipidus
What is a common pathology of the parathyroid gland?
Gigantism
What are 5 common pathologies of the thyroid gland?
- Goiter
- Grave’s disease
- Hashimoto disease
- Myxedema (hypothyroidism)
- Thyrotoxicosis
Diabetes mellitus
when the body can’t produce enough of insulin, or the insulin it produces isn’t effective.
What is a pathology of the pancreatic islets?
Diabetes mellitus
What are some symptoms of Diabetes mellitus?
- Increased thirst
- Frequent urination esp. at night-time
- Weight loss despite increased appetite
- Fatigue
- Nausea
- Vomiting
- Frequent infections
- Blurred vision
Type 1 diabetes (IDDM)
– is a hereditary lifelong condition where the body’s immune system attacks the cells that produce insulin.
- most common in people under the age of 20.
Type 2 diabetes (NIDDM)
- Insulin levels may be normal, but body cells do not react to it properly, causing alterations in the metabolism of food.
- Pregnancy could cause higher blood glucose levels (gestational diabetes).
- More common than T1 IDDM (over 90% of adults with diabetes have T2DM)
What is the pathophysiology of Type 1 diabetes?
- Autoimmune disorder
- Absence of insulin production
- Treatment with insulin is essential
What is the pathophysiology of Type 2 diabetes?
- Insulin resistance
- Onset on average around 40 years of age
Describe the pathophysiology of diabetes.
- Insulin (produced by the pancreas) controls the amount of sugar in the blood
- When food is digested and enters your bloodstream, insulin moves glucose out of the blood and into cells, where it’s broken down to produce energy
- Diabetics are unable to break down glucose into energy (due to either a lack of insulin or not being able to produce it)
What are some risks for type 2 diabetes?
- Overweight or obesity
- Unhealthy diet
- Family history or type 2 diabetes
- Asian, Black African or African Caribbean origin
- Prolonged medications like steroids
- High blood pressure
- Gestational diabetes
Diabetes can cause…
- Damage to micro-vessels
- Peripheral neuropathy, no sensation
- Ulcers develop due to trauma, infection often ensues
- Arterial blood supply is reduced
- Ulcer becomes chronic with bouts of acute infection leading to loss of digits/foot/limb
What are the 6 stages of the diabetic foot?
Stage 1 - Normal
Stage 2 - High Risk
Stage 3 - Ulcerated
Stage 4 - Cellulitic
Stage 5 - Necrotic
Stage 6 - Major Amputation
What can diabetic foot disease lead to?
- Chronic wounds
- Critical limb ischaemia
- Acute on chronic limb ischaemia
- Loss of structural integrity
- Necrosis
