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DAT Nervous System, Muscular System, Skeletal System Flashcards

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1
Q

responsibility of nervous system

A

for coordinating our
sensory and motor functions by transmitting
signals around our body.

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2
Q

where all does the nervous system include

A

brain, spinal
cord, nerves, neural support cells, and certain
sensory organs (eye, ear).

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3
Q

functional unit of nervous system

A

neuron

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4
Q

Neuron

A

consists of several dendrites,
a single branched axon, and cell body
(soma). Neurons are highly specialized,
aren’t able to divide, and are highly
dependent on glucose for chemical
energy.

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5
Q

Axon hillock

A

where the soma connects
to the axon; action potentials are
generated here

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6
Q

Dendrites

A

receive information and
transfer it to the cell body

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7
Q

Axon

A
  • transfers impulses away from the
    cell body
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8
Q

Myelinated axons appear what color

A

white

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9
Q

neuronal cell bodies are what color

A

grey

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10
Q

Glial cells

A

nervous tissue support cells
that are capable of cell division

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11
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

produce myelin
in the central nervous system (CNS)

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12
Q

Schwann cells

A

produce myelin in
the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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13
Q

Myelin sheath

A

fatty sheaths that
act as insulators and are
separated by Nodes of Ranvier
that allow the action potential to
travel continuously down the
axon, jumping from node to
node, a process known as
saltatory conduction, that speeds
up the impulse

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14
Q

Microglia

A

phagocytes of the
CNS

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15
Q

Ependymal cells

A

use cilia to
circulate cerebrospinal fluid

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16
Q

Satellite cells

A

groups of cell
bodies in the PNS that serve as
support cells

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17
Q

Astrocytes

A

provide physical
support to neurons of the CNS
and maintain the mineral and
nutrient balance

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18
Q

Sensory (afferent) neurons

A
  • receive
    stimulus from the environment and send
    the stimulus to the brain for processing
    (e.g., neurons in the retina of the eye)
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19
Q

Association (interneuron) neurons

A

located in the spinal cord and brain;
receive impulses from sensory neurons
and send impulses to motor neurons.

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20
Q

99% of nerves are what

A

interneurons

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21
Q

Motor (efferent) neurons

A
  • travel from
    the brain and stimulate effectors, which
    are target cells that elicit some response
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22
Q

nerve impulse

A

electrical signal that is
transmitted along a nerve fiber, allowing us to
send signals to perform actions like raising an
arm to catch a ball

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23
Q

The resting membrane potential, the normal
unstimulated state of a neuron, is what?

A

negative

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24
Q

Steps of Nerve Impulse Transmission

A

Resting potential, action potential, repolarization, Hyperpolarization, Refractory period,

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25
Q

signal is transmitted across a synapse by…

A

traveling from the pre-synaptic neuron to the
post-synaptic neuron.

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26
Q

electrical transmission

A

a bidirectional action
potential that travels along
membranes of gap junctions; is less
common in the body, fast, and found
in cardiac and visceral smooth muscle

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27
Q

Chemical transmission

A

a unidirectional action
potential that is most typical in animal
cells

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28
Q

Steps of Transmission Across Chemical

Synapse

A
  1. Ca2+ gates open, 2. Synaptic vessels release
    neurotransmitter, 3. Neurotransmitter binds with
    postsynaptic receptors, 4. Postsynaptic membrane is excited or
    inhibited, 5. Neurotransmitter is degraded/
    recycled/diffused away -
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29
Q

Diameter factor

A

greater diameter allows an
impulse to propagate faster since a larger
diameter results in a less resistance to the
flow of ions (think of passing water
through a large pipe vs. a small one)

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30
Q

Myelination

A

heavily myelinated axons
allow impulses to propagate faster since
Na+ ions can’t leak out, thereby driving
saltatory conduction to occur faster

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31
Q

Acetylcholine (Ach)

A

secreted at
neuromuscular junctions and cause
muscle contraction or relaxation

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32
Q

Glutamate

A

neurotransmitter at the
neuromuscular junction in
invertebrates, and is the most
common CNS neurotransmitter in
vertebrates

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33
Q

Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)

A

inhibitory neurotransmitter among
brain neurons

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34
Q

Glycine

A
  • inhibitory neurotransmitter
    among synapses of the CNS outside
    the brain
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35
Q

Amino acid derived (biogenic amines)

A

Epinephrine, norepinephrine,
dopamine, and serotonin (5HT) -
secreted between neurons of the
CNS

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36
Q

Neuropeptides

A

short chains of amino
acids and are a diverse group including
substance P and endorphins

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37
Q

Gases

A

Unlike most neurotransmitters, these
are not stored in vesicles and are
actually synthesized and released on
demand! Example: nitric oxide (NO)

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38
Q

Central Nervous System (CNS)

A

Consists of the interneurons, brain, and spinal
cord.

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39
Q

Meninges include…

A

Dura mater, Arachnoid mater, Space between arachnoid and pia
mater, Pia mater

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40
Q

Dura mater

A

outermost layer; thick,
protects brain and spinal cord, has
vein-like structures to carry blood
from brain back to heart

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41
Q

Arachnoid mater

A

middle layer with
a spiderweb-like appearance

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42
Q

Space between arachnoid and pia
mater

A

space filled with
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which is
produced by tissue called choroid
plexus in fluid-filled compartments in
the CNS called ventricles

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43
Q

Pia mater

A

a delicate innermost
membrane covering the brain and
spinal cord

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44
Q

Brain

A

has outer grey matter (cell bodies)
and inner white matter (axons); consists
of forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain

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45
Q

Forebrain

A
  • largest and most
    important brain region;
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46
Q

cerebrum, which includes the what??

A

Cerebral cortex, Olfactory bulb, Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Basal ganglia, hippocampus

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47
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

processes
sensory input, important for
perception, memory, voluntary
movement, and learning

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48
Q

Olfactory bulb

A

smell

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49
Q

Thalamus

A

relays sensory
information between spinal cord
and cerebral cortex

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50
Q

Hypothalamus

A

responsible for
visceral function such as water
balance, blood pressure
regulation, temperature
regulation, hunger, thirst, sex
drive, circadian rhythms —
circadian rhythms coordinated
by suprachiasmatic nucleus

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51
Q

Basal ganglia

A

centers for
planning/learning movement
sequences

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52
Q

Hippocampus

A

memory
consolidation and spatial
navigation

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53
Q

Midbrain -

A

relay center for visual
and auditory impulses, and motor
control

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54
Q

Hindbrain

A

posterior part of the brain

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55
Q

hindbrain contains what?

A

Cerebellum, Pons, Medulla oblongata, Brainstem,

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56
Q

Cerebellum

A

maintains balance,
hand-eye coordination, timing of
rapid movements, and motor
skills

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57
Q

Pons

A

relay center to allow
communication between the
cortex and cerebellum

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58
Q

Medulla oblongata

A

regulates
breathing, heart rate, and
gastrointestinal activity

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59
Q

Brainstem

A

consists of the
midbrain, medulla oblongata, and
pons; connects the cerebrum with
the spinal cord and is part of the
reticular formation, which is a
network of neurons within the
brainstem that regulates sleep
and arousal

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60
Q

Spinal cord

A

a bundle of
nerves (does not include the bony spine/
vertebral column) with the outer area of
the cord consisting of white matter and
the inner consisting of gray matter;
contains two horns:

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61
Q

Dorsal horn

A

sensory info enters
here

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62
Q

Ventral horn

A

motor information
exits here

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63
Q

Brain lobes

A

divides cerebrum

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64
Q

Frontal lobe

A

responsible for
conscious thought (attention),
initiates voluntary skeletal muscle
movement via motor cortex,
contains olfactory bulb for smell,
Broca’s area for forming speech is
found here, and contains the
prefrontal cortex for decision
making and planning

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65
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Somatosensation, Proprioception, Somatosensory cortex

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66
Q

Somatosensation -

A

temperature, touch, pressure,
and pain

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67
Q

Proprioception

A

orientation of
body parts in space

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68
Q

Somatosensory cortex

A

receives and processes sensory
information from entire body

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69
Q

Temporal lobe

A

processes and
interprets sounds

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70
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

understanding speech

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71
Q

Hippocampus

A

memory
formation

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72
Q

Auditory cortex

A

processes
auditory information in humans

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73
Q

Occipital lobe

A

processes and
interprets visual input, responsible
for object recognition, responds to
visual stimuli

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74
Q

Visual association cortex

A

processes vision

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75
Q

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

A

Consists of the somatic and autonomic branches,

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76
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

innervates
skeletal muscle and can be voluntary
(raising hand) or involuntary (knee jerk
reflex)

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77
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

responsible
for involuntary movement and innervates
cardiac and smooth muscle; divided into
sympathetic and parasympathetic
branches:

78
Q

Sympathetic branch

A

responsible for fight or
flight response by doing the following:
a. Increasing blood pressure and
heart rate
b. Ejaculating
c. Generating energy (liver converts
glycogen → glucose)
d. Inhibiting digestion, urination, and
salivary secretion

79
Q

Parasympathetic

A

responsible for rest
and digest activities by doing the
following:
a. Lowering heart rate
b. Increasing digestion, relaxation, sexual arousal

80
Q

Nerves of sympathetic nervous
system -

A

Preganglionic, postganglionic

81
Q

Preganglionic sympathetic

A

originate in and
exit the CNS midway through
the spinal cord and form
synapses in ganglia (with
postganglionic nerves) just
outside the spinal cord; release
acetylcholine

82
Q

Postganglionic sympathetic

A

release
epinephrine/norepinephrine

83
Q

Preganglionic parasympathetic

A

originate and
exit the CNS from the base of
the brain and upper spinal cord
and form synapses with ganglia
in or near effectors; release
acetylcholine

84
Q

Postganglionic

A

release
acetylcholine as well (sometimes
nitric oxide)

85
Q

Nicotinic Acetylcholine receptors

A
  • found on skeletal
    muscle and on postganglionic
    nerves at the ganglia
86
Q

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors

A

found on effectors
for the parasympathetic nervous
system

87
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

touch

88
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

temperature

89
Q

Nociceptors

A

pain

90
Q

Electromagnetic receptors

A

light

91
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

taste, smell, blood chemistry

92
Q

Vagus nerve

A

extends from medulla
oblongata and innervates parts of the
heart, lungs, stomach, intestines, and
liver

93
Q

Sciatic nerve

A

innervates lower limbs
and pelvis

94
Q

Abducens nerve

A

serves the somatic
muscles surrounding the eyes

95
Q

Supraorbital nerve

A

serves structures
surrounding the eyes and scalp

96
Q

path of vision

A

cornea, pupil, lense, retina

97
Q

sclera,

A

connective tissue layer of the eye

98
Q

choroid,

A

vascular layer providing blood and
nutrition to the retina.

99
Q

Cones

A

responsible for perceiving high-
intensity illumination and are sensitive to

color

100
Q

Rods

A

receptive to low-intensity light;
are important in night vision and do not
perceive color

101
Q

Fovea

A

an area with the most dense
concentration of cones and is important
for high acuity vision

102
Q

Vitreous humor

A

jelly-like liquid between
the lens and retina that maintains eye
shape and has optical properties; makes
up most of the eye volume

103
Q

Aqueous humor

A

watery liquid that fills
anterior chamber between the lens and
cornea; the eye produces this in order
to maintain intraocular pressure and
provide nutrients to the avascular
ocular tissues

104
Q

Myopia

A
  • nearsightedness
105
Q

Hyperopia

A

farsightedness

106
Q

Astigmatism

A

irregularly shaped
cornea

107
Q

Cataracts

A

lens becomes opaque and
light cannot enter

108
Q

Glaucoma

A

an increase in pressure of
the eye due to blocking of outflow of
aqueous humor

109
Q

Outer ear

A

contains the auricle/pinna
(what we think of as the ear) and auditory
canal; directs sound into the external
auditory canal → middle ear

110
Q

Middle ear

A

amplifies sound; the
tympanic membrane (eardrum) begins in
the middle ear and vibrates at the same
frequency as the incoming sound →
three tiny bones, ossicles, (malleus, incus,
and stapes) → inner ear

111
Q

Inner ear

A

waves move through the
cochlea (vibration of ossicles exert
pressure on the fluid). As the wave moves
through alternating pressures, motion is
creating along the basilar membrane.
This movement is detected by hair cells
(not actual hair cells, but specialized
stereocilia cells) of the organ of Corti →
transduced neural signal → action
potential

112
Q

Protozoans and primitive algae unicellular locomotion

A

use
cilia or flagella by means of a power
stroke and recovery stroke

113
Q

Amoeba locomotion

A

extend pseudopodia, in
which the advancing cell membrane
extends forward

114
Q

flatworms locomotion

A
  • contain longitudinal
    and circular bi-layered muscles that
    contract agains the hydrostatic
    skeleton
115
Q

Annelids (segmented worms) locomotion

A

advance by action of muscles on
hydrostatic skeletons

116
Q

Skeletal muscle (striated muscle)

A

are
involved in voluntary movement and
contain fibers with multinucleate cells.

117
Q

Myofibrils

A

contain microfilaments
divided into sarcomeres

118
Q

Sarcomeres

A

individual contractile
units separated by a border (Z-line)

119
Q

Sarcoplasm reticulum

A

stores Ca2+
and surrounds myofibrils

120
Q

Sarcoplasm

A

same thing as
cytoplasm, but referred to as
sarcoplasm in muscles

121
Q

Sarcolemma

A

plasma membrane of
muscle cells that can propagate
action potentials

122
Q

sarcomere

A

the structural unit of a myofibril
in striated muscle and is composed of thin
filaments (made of actin polymers) and thick
filaments (made of the protein myosin)

123
Q

Z-line

A

boundary of a single sarcomere
and anchors thin filaments

124
Q

M-line

A

center of sarcomere

125
Q

I-band

A

region containing thin
filaments (actin) only (on the ends)

126
Q

H-zone

A

region containing thick
filaments (myosin) only (in middle)

127
Q

A-band

A

area where actin and myosin
overlap

128
Q

contraction occurs via the

A

sliding filament model

129
Q

Sliding Filament Model

A
  1. ATP binds to the myosin head, 2. Ca2+ exposes binding sites on actin, 3. Cross bridges between myosin heads
    and actin filaments form, 4. ADP + Pi are released, 5. New ATP attaches to the myosin head,
    causing cross bridges to unbind
130
Q

motor unit

A

a neuron and the muscle fibers it
innervates.

131
Q

Smaller motor units tend to be activated…

A

first

132
Q

Recruitment occurs when

A

a greater quantity of
muscle fibers are activated by the brain rather
than an increase in frequency of action
potentials that stimulate muscle fiber
contraction.

133
Q

Simple twitch

A

response of a single
muscle fiber to brief stimulus; the steps
are the latent period, contraction, and
relaxation

134
Q

Latent period

A

time between
stimulation and onset of contraction;
lag

135
Q

Contraction

A

contracts following
sliding filament model

136
Q

Relaxation

A
  • time where muscle
    returns to resting position. This
    occurs during the absolute
    refractory period, where the
    muscle is unresponsive to a stimulus
137
Q

Summation

A

contractions combine
and become stronger and more
prolonged

138
Q

Tetanus

A

continuous sustained
contraction where a muscle cannot
relax

139
Q

Tonus

A

state of partial contraction
where the muscle is never completely
relaxed

140
Q

Sub-threshold stimuli

A

no motor units
respond

141
Q

Threshold

A

one motor unit responds

142
Q

Sub-maximal

A
  • an increasing number of
    motor units respond
143
Q

Type I muscle fiber

A

Slow twitch
ii. Lots of myoglobin
iii. Lots of mitochondria
iv. Aerobic endurance
Appear red
vi. Small diameter

144
Q

Type IIA muscle siber

A

Fast twitch
ii. Lots of myoglobin
iii. Less endurance than type I
iv. Appear reddish pink
v. Intermediate in diameter

145
Q

Type IIB muscle fiber

A

Fast twitch
ii. Low myoglobin - use glycolysis
(primarily use anaerobic)
iii. Lots of glycogen - generates power
iv. Split ATP at a fast rate
v. Fastest to fatigue
vi. Appear white
vii. Large diameter

146
Q

Single-unit smooth muscle

A

visceral; connected by gap
junctions, contract as a single unit
(found in stomach, uterus, and urinary
bladder)

147
Q

Multi-unit

A

each fiber is directly
attached to the neuron; can contract
independently (found in iris and
bronchioles)

148
Q

Cardiac Muscle

A

Has a striated appearance due to sarcomeres,
has one or two central nuclei, has cells separated
by intercalated discs that have gap junctions to
allow action potentials to chain flow via electrical
synapse, contract involuntarily, and have lots of
mitochondria. Cardiac muscle is not connected
to bone, rather it forms a net that contracts
upon itself and grows via hypertrophy.

149
Q

Exoskeleton

A
  • a hard covering on the
    outer surface
150
Q

Endoskeleton

A
  • the vertebrate skeleton is
    comprised of an internal skeleton under
    soft tissue. The two major components
    are cartilage and bone:
151
Q

Cartilage

A

an avascular connective
tissue that is soft and flexible, and
can be found in the ear, nose,
larynx, trachea, and joints

152
Q

3 types of cartilage

A

hyaline
(most common, reduces friction
and absorbs shock in joints),
fibrocartilage, and elastic

153
Q

Development cartilage

A

arises from
mesenchyme tissue that
differentiates into chondrocytes.

154
Q

Collagen

A

present in tissue as a
triple helix with special amino
acids hydroxyproline and
hydroxylysine, ground
substance, and elastin fibers

155
Q

cartilage Composition

A

cartilage is
composed primarily of collagen
fibers embedded in chondroitin
sulfate, and receives nutrients
via diffusion

156
Q

cartilage surroundings

A
  • cartilage is
    surrounded by a dense fibrous
    connective tissue called
    perichondrium
157
Q

Bone

A

living connective tissue that is
hard and strong while also elastic and
lightweight

158
Q

bone Functions

A

support soft tissue,
protect internal organs, assist in
body movement, mineral storage,
blood cell production, and energy
storage in the form of adipose
cells in bone marrow

159
Q

bone types

A

mature or immatire

160
Q

Axial skeleton

A

basic framework of the
skeleton that includes the skull, vertebral
column, and rib cage

161
Q

Appendicular skeleton

A

bones of
appendages, pectoral and pelvic girdles,
and everything else that isn’t in the axial
skeleton

162
Q

Sutures

A

immoveable joins that hold
together the bones of the skull

163
Q

Moveable joints

A

bones that move
relative to each other

164
Q

Ligaments

A
  • bone to bone
    connectors that strengthen joints
165
Q

Tendons

A

dense connective tissue
that connect muscle to bone and
bend skeleton at moveable joints

166
Q

Origin

A

point of attachment of
muscle to stationary bone

167
Q

Insertion

A
  • point of attachment
    of muscle to bone that moves
168
Q

Extension

A

straightening of
joint

169
Q

Flexion

A

bending of joint

170
Q

Foramen

A
  • an opening in the
    bone that allows for the passage
    of nerves (foramen magnum in
    the skull allows for the passage
    of the spinal cord)
171
Q

Osteoarthritis

A

the cartilage
that covers the bone ends of
freely moveable joints begins to
wear away due to aging

172
Q

Rheumatoid arthritis

A

a
degenerative cartilage disorder
with a genetic basis

173
Q

Fibrous joint

A

connects bones without
allowing any movement (e.g., skull,
pelvis, and vertebrae)

174
Q

Cartilaginous joint

A

bones are attached by
cartilage and allow little movement (e.g.,
spine and ribs)

175
Q

Synovial joint

A

most common type of joint
that allows for much more movement as
it is filled with synovial fluid that acts as a
lubricant

176
Q

Osteoprogenitor/osteogenic bone cells

A

cells
that are part of the mesenchymal stem
cell lineage that differentiate into
osteoblasts

177
Q

Osteoblasts

A

secrete collagen and
organic compounds upon which bone is
formed.

178
Q

Osteocytes

A
  • are incapable of mitosis
    and exchange nutrients and waste
    material with the blood
179
Q

Osteoclasts

A
  • resorb (destroy) bone
    matrix and release minerals back to the
    blood.
180
Q

Compact bone

A

highly organized,
dense bone that doesn’t appear to have
cavities from outside.

181
Q

Haversian canals

A

osteoclasts
burrow tunnels that form these
canals

182
Q

Lamellae

A

concentric rings

183
Q

Lacunae

A

osteocytes trapped
between the lamellae reside in a
space called the lacunae

184
Q

Volkmann’s canals

A

the Haversian
canal contains nerves, blood vessels,
and lymph vessels, which are
connected by Volkmann’s canals

185
Q

Osteon

A

the entire system of
lamellae + Haversian canals

186
Q

Medullary cavity

A
  • compact bone
    surrounds the medullary cavity which
    is filled with yellow bone marrow that
    contains adipose cells for fat storage
187
Q

Spongy (cancellous) bone

A

less
dense bone that consists of an
interconnecting lattice of bony spicules
called trabeculae.

188
Q

Long bone

A

typically has a long shaft
(diaphysis) and two ends, each
composed of a metaphysis and
epiphysis.

189
Q

Endochrondral ossification

A

cartilage
turns into bone

190
Q

Intramembranous ossification

A

undifferentiated connective tissue is
replaced by bone

191
Q

Osteoporosis

A

causes bone density to
decrease, and the bone becomes easier
to break and fracture.

bio (49 decks)

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