D2.2 HL only Flashcards
polypeptide
a chain of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds
Gene expression
the process by which the information encoded in a gene is turned into a function. This mostly occurs via the transcription of RNA molecules.
Transcription
the process by which a cell makes an RNA copy of a piece of DNA.
Translation
process oftranslatingthe sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule to a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis
alleles
different versions of a gene that occur at the same location on a chromosome
genotype
the genetic makeup of an organism, or the combination of alleles that an organism has
phenotype
an organism’s observable characteristics, such as its appearance, behavior, and development
Promoter region
a region of DNA upstream of a gene where relevant proteins (such as RNA polymerase and transcription factors) bind to initiate transcription of that gene
upstream
the direction of a process or the position of a genetic sequence towards the 5’ end of a molecule
coding region
a DNA or RNA sequence that codes for a protein
Transcription factors
proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to DNA
Enhancer region
a DNA segment that controls the transcription of nearby genes
activator proteins
proteins that increase the transcription of genes
Repressor region
a DNA sequence where a repressor protein binds to prevent gene transcription
repressor protein
a protein that reduces or turns off gene expression
mRNA degradation
a cellular process that breaks down mRNAs that are no longer needed or have been damaged
Exonucleases
an enzyme that breaks down nucleic acids by removing nucleotides from the ends of DNA or RNA
5’ cap
a modified nucleotide at the beginning of eukaryotic messenger RNA (mRNA)
poly A tail
a chain of adenine nucleotides added to the 3’ end of messenger RNA (mRNA)
Decapping complex
a protein complex that removes the 5’ cap from messenger RNA (mRNA) in eukaryotic cells
Deadenylase complex
process of shortening of the 3′ poly(A) tail of an RNA molecule
genome
the complete set of DNA in an organism
Ectoderm
the outermost layer of cells in an embryo that develops into the skin, nervous system, and sense organs
Mesoderm
the middle layer of cells in an embryo that develops into many tissues and organs
Endoderm
the innermost of the three primarygerm layersof an embryo that is the source of the epithelium of the digestive tract and its derivatives and of the lower respiratory tract
Epigenesis
the process by which plants, animals, and fungi develop from a seed, spore, or egg
differentiation
the process by which immature cells develop into mature cells with specific functions
Epigenetics
the study of how environmental factors and behaviors can change how genes are expressed, without altering the DNA sequence
epigenetic tags
chemical compounds that attach to DNA and regulate gene expression
DNA methylation
a chemical process that adds a methyl group to DNA, which can affect how genes are expressed
methyl group
a small molecule made of one carbon atom and three hydrogen atoms(-CH3)
transcriptional silencing
a process that prevents the transcription of a gene
Totipotent stem cells
cells that can develop into all the tissues of an organism, including the embryo and the placenta
Transcriptome
the sum of all the messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules in an organism, cell, or tissue
Proteome
the collection of all proteins in a cell, tissue, or organism at a given time
Air pollution
the introduction of harmful substances into the air that can damage the environment and harm living organisms
Ground level ozone (O3)
Ozone at ground level is a harmful air pollutant, because of its effects on people and the environment, and it is the main ingredient in “smog.”
Nitrous oxides (NOx)
a group of gases that includes nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).They are a major component of air pollution and can be harmful to human health and the environment.
Particulate matter
a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets in the air.It’s also known as particle pollution.PM can be made up of many chemical compounds, including dust, dirt, soot, and smoke.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
a group of persistent organic pollutant compounds that contain two or more benzene rings
inflammation response
a protective response to injury or infection that involves the release of chemicals and immune cells
primordial germ cells (PGCs)
cells that develop into sperm and eggs.They are the first germ-line precursor cells in mammals.
Imprinted genes
the process by which only one copy of a gene in an individual (either from their mother or their father) is expressed, while the other copy is suppressed
Monozygotic twin
Twins conceived from one egg and one spermare called identical or ‘monozygotic’ (one-cell) twins.
differentially methylated regions (DMRs)
genomic regions that have different DNA methylation patterns between biological samples.DMRs are associated with gene expression levels and may be involved in disease development.
lac operon
a group of genes that work together to break down lactose in bacteria
Lactose
a sugar found in milk that is made up of galactose and glucose
lactase
an enzyme that breaks down lactose into glucose and galactose in the small intestine
lac repressor
a protein that controls the transcription of genes involved in lactose metabolism in bacteria
promoter
a DNA sequence that initiates transcription of a gene
INS gene
a gene that provides instructions for producing the hormone insulin.Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood sugar levels.
Insulin
a hormone that controls blood sugar levels
