C1.1 HL only Flashcards
Extracellular enzymes
enzymes that are secreted by a cell and function outside of the cell
extracellular environment
the space outside of a cell in biology
Intracellular enzymes
proteins that function inside a cell, and are also known as endoenzymes
cytoplasm
the gelatinous liquid that fills most of a cell’s interior, excluding the nucleus
ribosomes
ell organelles that are responsible for protein synthesis
rough endoplasmic reticulum
an organelle in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells that synthesizes proteins, folds them, and performs other functions
vesicles
small, membrane-bound sacs filled with liquid that perform a variety of functions within cells
Golgi apparatus
a cell organelle that processes and packages proteins and lipids for use inside and outside the cell
cell membrane
a semipermeable lipid bilayer that separates the inside of a cell from its outside environment
exocytosis
a biological process that involves the release of large molecules from a cell’s cytoplasm to the outside of the cell
ducts
a tube or vessel in the body that carries fluids, especially glandular secretions or excretions
excreted
the process of removing waste and toxic substances from an organism’s cells, tissues, blood, or organs
free ribosomes
small organelles that float freely in the cytosol of a cell and synthesize proteins that are used within the cell
Lysosomes
organelles in animal cells that are responsible for breaking down and recycling materials in the cell
DNA replication
the process by which a cell copies its DNA to create two identical copies
gene expression
he process by which the information encoded in a gene is turned into a function
cellular respiration
a process that occurs in the cells of all living organisms to convert chemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which contains energy
photosynthesis
a biological process that converts light energy into chemical energy, which is used to fuel the metabolism of organisms that perform it
Cyclin kinases
a family of enzymes that play a key role in cell cycle regulation
Phosphorylases
enzymes that process carbohydrates by catalyzing the reversible transfer of glycosyl groups from a saccharide donor to phosphate
Salivary amylase
an enzyme that helps break down starch into smaller sugars during digestion
lipase
an enzyme that breaks down fats in food so that the body can absorb them
Pepsin
an enzyme in the stomach that breaks down proteins in food during digestion
Trypsin
a digestive enzyme that helps break down proteins in the small intestine
Sucrase
an enzyme that breaks down sucrose, or table sugar, into glucose and fructose
Lactase
an enzyme that breaks down lactose, a sugar found in milk and other dairy products, into glucose and galactose
Maltase
an enzyme that breaks down maltose, a sugar made in the body, into glucose, a sugar used for energy
Pancreatic amylase
a digestive enzyme that breaks down complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars
calories
a unit of energy that measure the amount of energy in food and the body’s need for energy to function
thermal energy
the energy that results from the movement of particles in an object or system
Metabolic heat
the heat produced by the body’s life processes, such as growth and energy production
Ectotherms
organisms that rely on external sources to regulate their body temperature, and are often referred to as “cold-blooded” animals
Thermoconformers
organisms that allow their body temperature to change with the temperature of their environment
Endotherms
animals that can generate and control their own body heat to maintain a constant temperature, regardless of the environment
Thermoregulators
an organism that maintains its physiologic core body temperature by balancing heat generation with heat loss
Insulation
layers of thick skin, scales, fur, etc which stops the flow of heat from body part
Surface area / volume ratio
how much surface area an object or collection of objects has per unit volume
Metabolic pathways
a series of biochemical reactions that occur in a cell, which convert a substrate molecule into a final product
inhibitors
chemical or biological molecules that regulate chemical reactions by slowing them down or preventing them from occurring
exergonic reactions
a chemical reaction that releases energy to its surroundings, and is characterized by a negative change in free energy
Linear pathways
follow a step-by-step sequence, where each enzymatic reaction results in the transformation of a substrate into an intermediate product
Glycolysis
process in which glucose is broken down to produce energy. It produces two molecules of pyruvate, ATP, NADH and water
Cyclical pathways
metanbolic pathway that links back to a starting substrate to ensure the starting materials are present to keep the cycle going
Krebs Cycle
the sequence of reactions by which most living cells generate energy during the process of aerobic respiration
Activators
a substance that activates a protein or biological process, or increases the activity of an enzyme
Cofactors
a non-protein chemical compound that is essential for the biological activity of a protein, usually an enzyme
Coenzymes
a non-protein organic molecule that helps enzymes catalyze reactions
Noncompetitive inhibition
a type of enzyme inhibition that occurs when an inhibitor binds to an enzyme at a different site than the active site
allosteric site
a binding site on an enzyme that is separate from the active site
conformational change
a change in the shape of a macromolecule, such as a protein, due to environmental factors or other influences
Activators
a substance that activates a protein or biological process, or increases the activity of an enzyme
Inhibitors
chemical or biological molecules that regulate chemical reactions by slowing them down or preventing them from occurring
Competitive inhibition
a biochemical process where a substance prevents another substance from binding to an enzyme’s active site
Positive feedback
a biological process that amplifies a body’s response to a stimulus, resulting in a cycle where the end products of an action cause more of that action to happen
Negative feedback
a control mechanism that helps maintain a steady state, or homeostasis, by reversing changes in conditions
Reversible inhibitors
a molecule that temporarily binds to an enzyme, slowing down the rate of a chemical reaction without forming a covalent bond
Irreversible inhibitors
a substance that permanently blocks an enzyme’s action
acetylcholine esterase
an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine (ACh), a neurotransmitter, into acetic acid and choline
Statins
a class of drugs that lower cholesterol levels in the blood by reducing the amount of cholesterol produced by the liver and helping the liver remove cholesterol that is already in the blood
cholesterol
a structural component of cell membranes
Penicillin
a class of antibiotics that treat bacterial infections by damaging the cell walls of bacteria
antibiotic
a chemical that is used to treat and prevent bacterial infections by killing or limiting the growth of bacteria
transpeptidase
an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between amino acid residues, cross-linking proteins
Penicillin resistance
when bacteria are able to withstand the effects of penicillin, an antibiotic that kills or stops the growth of bacteria
Penicillin-binding proteins
bacterial enzymes that bind to penicillin and other antibiotics in the β-lactam class
