BIO - TERMS - FREQUENCY > 3 Flashcards
acidosis
Condition in which the pH of arterial blood is below 7.35. // A condition in which an accumulation of H+ increases muscles acidity. // A metabolic condition in which the capacity of the body to buffer H is diminished; usually accompanied by decreased blood pH. // Abnormally low blood pH.
active transport
Energy-requiring transport of a solute across a membrane in the direction of increasing concentration. // Movement of a molecule across a membrane or other barrier driven by energy other than that stored in the electrochemical or concentration gradient of the transported molecule. // Method of a protein pump transporting a substance across the membrane, against its concentration gradient. // Net movement of a substance across a membrane against a concentration gradient; requires the cell to expend energy.
agonist
A compound, typically a hormone or neurotransmitter, that elicits a physiological response when it binds to its specific receptor. // Muscle that contracts to produce a particular movement; also called prime mover. // A stimulatory ligand for a receptor. // Organisms that produce substances (secondary metabolites) that activate defense mechanisms.
aldose
A simple sugar in which the carbonyl carbon atom is an aldehyde; that is, the carbonyl carbon is at one end of the carbon chain. alkalosis A metabolic condition in which the capacity of the body to buffer OH is diminished; usually accompanied by an increase in blood pH. // A sugar that is an aldehyde. // Monosaccharide with an aldehyde group. // A type of carbohydrate with an aldehyde functional group.
Allele (allelomorph; adj, allelic, allelomorphic)
Variation of a gene found on the same locus of homologous chromosomes. // A variant form of a gene; many genes occur in several (or more) different forms within the general population. See also heterozygous, homozygous, polymorphism. // One of several alternative forms of a gene. In a diploid cell, each gene will typically have two alleles, occupying the corresponding position (locus) on homologous chromosomes. // One of a pair, or series, of alternative forms of a gene that occur at a given locus in a chromosome. Alleles are symbolized with the same basic symbol (for example, D for tall peas and d for dwarf). (See also Multiple alleles.)
aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
Enzyme that attaches the correct amino acid to a tRNA molecule to form an aminoacyltRNA. // Enzymes that catalyze synthesis of an aminoacyl-tRNA at the expense of ATP energy. // Cytoplasmic enzymes that attach an amino acid to a tRNA. // Enzymes that catalyze the formation of high energy bonds between amino acids and tRNA molecules.
anemia
Any condition in which the number of erythrocytes is below normal or the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is reduced (as may occur if the amount of hemoglobin within erythrocytes is decreased). // A decrease in the number of red blood cells, a decrease in the amount of hemoglobin, or any other condition leading to a decrease in the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. // Abnormal condition characterized by pallor, weakness, and breathlessness, resulting from a deficiency of hemoglobin or a reduced number of red blood cells. // Abnormal decrease of the blood hemoglobin concentration.
antigenic variation
Ability to change the antigens displayed on the cell surface; a property of some pathogenic microorganisms that enables them to evade attack by the adaptive immune system. // Alterations in surface antigens that occur in some pathogens (such as African trypanosomes) from one generation to another, which allows them to evade preexisting antibodies. // Changes in surface antigens that occur in a microbial population. // Th e display by virus particles or infected cells of new protein sequences that are not recognized by antibodies or T cells that responded to previous infections. (Chapter 5)
aquaporin (AQP) // aquaporin (water channel)
A member of a family of integral membrane proteins that mediate the flow of water across membranes. // Channel protein embedded in the plasma membrane that greatly increases the cell’s permeability to water, allowing transport of water, but not ions, at a high rate across the membrane. // (ak′wă-pōr-in) Protein channels in the plasma membrane allowing the passage of water. // Membrane-based proteins regulating water flow across the membrane.
Atomic number, Z
Indicates the number of protons in one atom of a specific element. Value appears above each atomic symbol in the periodic table. // The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. // The number of protons in an atom; the atomic number defines the element. // The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
ATP (adenosine 5′-triphosphate)
Adenosine triphosphate: an energy-rich compound that promotes certain activities in the cell. // Nucleoside triphosphate composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups. The principal carrier of chemical energy in cells. The terminal phosphate groups are highly reactive in the sense that their hydrolysis, or transfer to another molecule, takes place with the release of a large amount of free energy. // A ribonucleoside 5’-triphosphate functioning as a phosphate group donor in the cellular energy cycle; carries chemical energy between metabolic pathways by serving as a shared intermediate coupling endergonic and exergonic reactions. // Chemical that transfers energy within a cell.
autoimmune disease
Damage to one’s own organs due to action of the immune system. // Pathological state in which the body mounts a disabling adaptive immune response against one or more of its own molecules. // Disease in which the immune system attacks selfantigens as if they were foreign. // Disorders in which the immune systems of affected individuals produce antibodies against self antigens— antigens synthesized in their own cells.
base
(1) A substance that can reduce the number of protons in solution, either by accepting H+ ions directly, or by releasing OH– ions, which then combine with H+ to form H2O. (2) The purines and pyrimidines in DNA and RNA are organic nitrogenous bases and are often referred to simply as bases. // A proton acceptor. // A substance that dissociates into one or more hydroxide ions (OH2) and one or more positive ions. // Substance that accepts a hydrogen ion.
calorie (cal)
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1.0 g of water from 14.5 to 15.5 C. One calorie (cal) equals 4.18 joules (J). // The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C. // A unit of energy defined as the amount of energy required to raise 1 g of water 1°C; equal to 4.184 J. // Shorthand notation for the kilocalorie (kcal), or 1000 calories; also called the nutritional calorie, the unit of energy used on nutritional labels.
capsid
The protein coat of a virion or virus particle. // The outer shell of viral proteins that surrounds the genome in a virus particle. (Chapters 1 and 4) // The protein coat of a virus that surrounds the nucleic acid. // The protein coat of the virus particle.
caspase
Intracellular protease that is involved in mediating the intracellular events of apoptosis. // A family of cysteine proteases that cleave proteins at aspartic acid residues. They have important roles in apoptosis and in the processing of cytokine pro-polypeptides. // Crirical proteases in apoptosis; members of a family of cysteine proteases that specifically cleave after aspartate residues. (Chapter 3) // Proteases whose activation triggers apoptosis.
catecholamines
(kat-ĕ-kōl′ă- mēnz) Class of neurotransmitters (includes epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine). // Tyrosine-derived biogenic amines: dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. // Hormones, such as epinephrine, that are amino derivatives of catechol. // The neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine.
centriole
(sen′trē-ōl) Organelle that participates in the separation of chromosome pairs or sister // Short cylindrical array of microtubules, closely similar in structure to a basal body. A pair of centrioles is usually found at the center of a centrosome in animal cells. // A structure consisting of nine microtubule triplets, found in eukaryotic cells. // An organelle in many animal cells that appears to be involved in the formation of the spindle during mitosis.
centrosome
A barrel-shaped organelle associated with the mitotic spindle in animal cells. // Centrally located organelle of animal cells that is the primary microtubule-organizing center (MTOC) and acts as the spindle pole during mitosis. In most animal cells it contains a pair of centrioles. // Region in a eukaryotic cell consisting of a pericentriolar area (protein fibers) and a pair of centrioles; involved in formation of the mitotic spindle. // An organelle that is the main microtubule-organizing center. (Chapter 5)
chemokine
A cytokine that induces, by chemotaxis, the migration of leukocytes into infected areas. // Small chemoattractant protein that stimulates the migration and activation of cells, especially phagocytic cells and lymphocytes. Chemokines have a central role in inflammatory responses. Properties of individual chemokines are listed in Appendix IV. // Small proteins that attract and stimulate cells of the immune defense system; produced by many cells in response to infection. (Chapter 3) // Small proteins that attract and stimulate cells of the immune defense; produced by many cells in response to infection. Also called chemotactic cytokines. (Chapter 5)
cholesterol
An abundant lipid molecule with a characteristic four-ring steroid structure. An important component of the plasma membranes of animal cells. // The most common steroid (fat-like material) found in the human body; important for membrane fluidity and as a precursor to steroid hormones; high cholesterol levels are associated with an increased risk of coronary diseases. // The only important membrane steroid in humans. // Type of steroid found in the plasma membrane.
Cilium (pl, cilia; adj, ciliate)
(sil′ē-ă) Extensions of plasma membrane supported by microtubules that move materials past the cell. // Hairlike locomotor structure on certain cells; a locomotor structure on a ciliate protozoan. cis-acting sequence. A nucleotide sequence that only affects the expression of genes located on the same chromosome, that is, cis to itself. // Hairlike extension of a eukaryotic cell containing a core bundle of microtubules. Many cells contain a single nonmotile cilium, while others contain large numbers that perform repeated beating movements. Compare flagellum. // A relatively short cellular projection from some eukaryotic cells, composed of nine pairs plus two microtubules. See flagellum.
cofactor
(1) The nonprotein component of an enzyme. (2) A microorganism or molecule that acts with others to synergistically enhance or cause disease. // An inorganic ion or a coenzyme required for enzyme activity. // A small nonprotein part of an enzyme that is necessary for biological activity. // Inorganic chemical structure attached to an enzyme that aids in enzyme function; e.g., Zn2+.
complementary DNA (cDNA)
A DNA complementary to a specific mRNA, used in DNA cloning; usually made by reverse transcriptase. // DNA made in vitro from an mRNA template. // The double-stranded DNA copy of a single-stranded RNA. // Transcribed from mRNA by employing the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
conformation
A spatial arrangement of substituent groups that are free to assume different positions in space, without breaking any bonds, because of the freedom of bond rotation. // The folded, three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide chain. // The noncovalent higher-order structure of a protein. // The three-dimensional shape of a molecule at any given instant, assuming that rotation around single bonds is frozen.
conjugation
A series of overlapping p orbitals, usually in alternating single and multiple bonds. For example, 1,3-butadiene is a conjugated diene, 3-buten-2-one is a conjugated enone, and benzene is a cyclic conjugated triene. // The transfer of genetic material from one cell to another involving cell-to-cell contact. // Transfer of a self-transmissible plasmid from one cell to another. // Union of sex cells (gametes) or unicellular organisms during fertilization; in Escherichia coli, a one-way transfer of genetic material from a donor (“male” cell) to a recipient (“female” cell).
consensus sequence
Average or most typical form of a sequence that is reproduced with minor variations in a group of related DNA, RNA, or protein sequences. Indicates the nucleotide or amino acid most often found at each position. Preservation of a sequence implies that it is functionally important. // The sequence of the most commonly encountered bases in a functionally defined nucleic acid sequence. // A DNA or amino acid sequence consisting of the residues that most commonly occur at each position in a set of similar sequences.
cytochrome
A protein that functions as an electron carrier in cellular respiration and photosynthesis. // Colored heme-containing protein that transfers electrons during respiration and photosynthesis. // Heme proteins serving as electron carriers in respiration, photosynthesis, and other oxidation-reduction reactions. // Heme proteins that function as electron carriers.
cytokinesis
The final separation of daughter cells following mitosis. // (sı̄′tō-ki-nē′sis) Division of the cytoplasm during cell division. // Cytoplasmic division and other changes exclusive of nuclear division that are a part of mitosis or meiosis. // Division of the cytoplasm of a plant or animal cell into two, as distinct from the associated division of its nucleus (which is mitosis). Part of M phase.
diapedesis
(dı̄′ă-pĕ-dē′sis) Passage of leukocytes (white blood cells) through the intact blood vessel wall. // Th e process by which viruses cross the vascular endothelium, while being carried within monocytes or lymphocytes. (Chapter 2) // The movement of blood cells, particularly leukocytes, from the blood across blood vessel walls into tissues. // The process by which phagocytes move out of blood vessels.
diploid // diploid cell
(dip′loyd) State of a cell containing pairs of homologous chromosomes. In humans, the diploid number of chromosomes is 46 (23 pairs). // Having two sets of genetic information; describes a cell with two chromosomes of each type. Compare haploid. // An organism or cell with two sets of chromosomes (2n) or two genomes. Somatic tissues of higher plants and animals are ordinarily diploid in chromosome constitution in contrast with the haploid (monoploid) gametes. // A cell having two sets of chromosomes; diploid is the normal state of a eukaryotic cell.
DNA ligase
Enzyme that joins the ends of two strands of DNA together with a covalent bond to make a continuous DNA strand. // An enzyme that catalyzes covalent closure of nicks in DNA double helices. // An enzyme that links two DNA strands. // Enzymes that creates a phosphodiester bond between the 3’ end of one DNA segment and the 5’ end of another.
double helix
A DNA molecule composed of two complementary strands. // The natural coiled conformation of two complementary, antiparallel DNA chains. // The structure of DNA in which two polynucleotide strands coil around each other. // The three-dimensional structure of DNA, in which two antiparallel DNA chains, held together by hydrogenbonding between the bases, are wound into a helix.
Enhancer
A DNA sequence containing multiple elements that can stimulate RNA polymerase II transcription over long distances, independently of orientation or location relative to the site of transcriptional initiation. (Chapter 8) // A substance or an object that increases a chemical activity or a physiological process; a major or modifier gene that increases a physiological process; a DNA sequence that influences transcription of a nearby gene. // DNA sequences that facilitate the expression of a given gene; may be located a few hundred, or even thousand, base pairs away from the gene. // DNA sequences that increase the rate of transcription by binding regulatory proteins.
enthalpy (heat) of reaction (ΔHᵣₓₙ) // enthalpy change (DH) // Heat of reaction
The enthalpy change for a chemical reaction. // For a reaction, approximately equal to the difference between the energy used to break bonds and the energy gained by the formation of new ones. // The heat of reaction. The enthalpy change that occurs during a reaction is a measure of the difference in total bond energy between reactants and products. // An alternative name for the enthalpy change in a reaction, DH.
entropy (S)
A thermodynamic function that is proportional to the number of energetically equivalent ways to arrange the components of a system to achieve a particular state; a measure of the energy randomization or energy dispersal in a system. // The randomness of a thermodynamic system. // The extent of randomness or disorder in a system. // Thermodynamic quantity that measures the degree of disorder or randomness in a system; the higher the entropy, the greater the disorder.
epithelial // epithelial cell // epithelial tissues
A type of tissue or cell that may line surfaces or cavities of various structures and organs in the body. // Any cell that forms part of the outer covering of an organism or organ. // A type of cell that composes tissues that line the surfaces of structures or cavities in organisms. // Tissues, such as the lining of the gut or the epidermal covering of the skin, in which cells are closely bound together into sheets called epithelia.
epitope
A short contiguous sequence or unique conformation of a macromolecule that can be recognized by the immune system; also called an antigenic determinant; a T cell epitope is a short peptide recognized by a particular T cell receptor, while a B cell epitope is recognized by the antigen-binding domain of antibody and is part of an intact protein. (Chapter 2) // A site on an antigen recognized by an antibody or an antigen receptor. T-cell epitopes are short peptide bound to MHC molecules. B-cell epitopes are typically structural motifs on the surface of the antigen. Also called an antigenic determinant. // An antigenic determinant; the particular chemical group or groups in a macromolecule (antigen) to which a given antibody binds. // Th e parts of an antigen that are bound by an antibody or that are recognized by a T cell receptor in the context of major histocompatibility proteins. (Chapter 4)
equilibrium constant (K // Keq)
A thermodynamic constant that is defined as product concentration(s) divided by substrate concentration(s) at equilibrium. // The ratio, at equilibrium, of the concentrations of the products of a reaction raised to their stoichiometric coefficients divided by the concentrations of the reactants raised to their stoichiometric coefficients. // The ratio of forward and reverse rate constants for a reaction. Equal to the association or affinity constant (Ka) for a simple binding reaction (A + B AB). See also affinity constant, dissociation constant. // A constant, characteristic for each chemical reaction, that relates the specific concentrations of all reactants and products at equilibrium at a given temperature and pressure.
erythrocyte // red blood cell
(ĕ-rith′rō-sı̄t) Mature red blood cell. // A cell containing large amounts of hemoglobin and specialized for oxygen transport; a red blood cell. // Another name for a red blood cell, or the oxygen-carrying cell of the blood. erythropoiesis The cellular events involved in the production of red blood cells. // Small hemoglobin-containing blood cell of vertebrates that transports oxygen to, and carbon dioxide from, tissues. Also called an erythrocyte.
essential oil (EO) // volatile oil
The volatile oil obtained by steam distillation of a plant extract. // Mixture of volatile terpenoids and phenylpropanoids responsible for the taste and smell of many plants, especially spices. // Volatile oils extracted from plants; smell like the plant. // Blend of various terpenoids and phenylpropanoids that evaporate easily (they add taste and smell to many plants).
Estrogen
Female hormone or estrus-producing compound. // 18-Carbon steroids, synthesized from androgens by the aromatization of ring A. // Female steroid sex hormones. // Female steroidal hormones, the most important of which are estradiol and progesterone.
euchromatin
A dispersed, transcriptionally active form of chromatin. // Genetic material that is not stained so intensely by certain dyes during interphase and that comprises many different kinds of genes (cf. Heterochromatin). // Region of an interphase chromosome that stains diffusely; “normal” chromatin, as opposed to the more condensed heterochromatin. // The regions of interphase chromosomes that stain diffusely, as opposed to the more condensed, heavily staining, heterochromatin. These are often regions in which genes are being actively expressed.
extrinsic pathway // extrinsic pathway of apoptosis
Pathway of apoptosis triggered by extracellular signal proteins binding to cell-surface death receptors. // In blood clotting, the process by which prothrombin is activated through a series of reactions. Factor VII (a vitamin K–dependent protein) is activated by a tissue factor called thromboplastin. Activated factor VII then activates factor X, which activates prothrombin. // Pathway by which apoptosis is induced when a proapoptotic ligand binds to its cell surface receptor. (Chapter 3) // A pathway triggered by extracellular ligands binding to specific cell-surface receptors (death receptors) that signal the cell to undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis).
facilitated diffusion
The movement of a substance across a plasma membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, mediated by transporter proteins. // A passive type of carrier-mediated transport. // Movement of a substance across a membrane, via a transport protein, down a gradient (e.g., concentration, electric). // Passive transport process using carrier proteins or channel proteins to move a chemical across the plasma membrane.
fatty acid
A carboxylic acid with a long hydrocarbon tail. // A long-chain aliphatic carboxylic acid found in natural fats and oils; also a component of membrane phospholipids and glycolipids. // A hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group as the terminal carbon. The chain may have double bonds or be completely saturated. // A long, straight-chain carboxylic acid found in fats and oils.
Fluorescence in situ hybridization // Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH)
Fluorescent in situ hybridization; use of rRNA probes to identify microbes without culturing. // In situ hybridization performed using a DNA or RNA probe coupled to a fluorescent dye. // A cytogenetic technique developed by biomedical researchers in the early 1980s that is used to detect and localize the presence or absence of specific DNA sequences on chromosomes. // Method for the detection of DNA sequences in a chromosome spread.
frameshift mutation
Mutation deleting or inserting of one or two nucleotides in a gene. This shifts the normal reading frame and causes the formation of functionless proteins. // Insertion or deletion that changes the reading frame of the messenger RNA. // A mutation caused by the addition or deletion of one or more bases in DNA. // A mutation that changes the reading frame of an mRNA, either by inserting or deleting nucleotides.
free energy (G) (Gibbs free energy)
The “useful” energy in chemical reactions. // The component of the total energy of a system that can do work at constant temperature and pressure. // The energy that can be extracted from a system to drive reactions. Takes into account changes in both energy and entropy // A thermodynamic state function related to enthalpy and entropy by the equation G = H - TS; chemical systems tend toward lower Gibbs free energy, also called the chemical potential.
functional group
A characteristic atom or group of atoms that impart certain chemical properties to an organic compound. // The specific atom or group of atoms that confers a particular chemical property on a biomolecule. // An arrangement of atoms in an organic molecule that is responsible for most of the chemical properties of that molecule. // 1. Classification of invertebrates into groups based on how they gather and eat food. Includes grazers, scrapers, shredders, collectors 2. specific groups within molecules that are responsible for specific chemical reactions of those.
G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs)
A large family of membrane receptor proteins with seven transmembrane helical segments, often associating with G proteins to transduce an extracellular signal into a change in cellular metabolism; also called heptahelical receptors. // A membrane protein that activates G-proteins when it binds neurotransmitter. // A seven-pass cellsurface receptor that, when activated by its extracellular ligand, activates a G protein, which in turn activates either an enzyme or ion channel in the plasma membrane. // A large class of seven-span transmembrane cell-surface receptors that associate with intracellular heterotrimeric G proteins after ligand binding, and signal by activation of the G protein. Important examples are the chemokine receptors.
G0 // G0 state // G0 phase // Resting state
State of withdrawal from the eukaroytic cell-division cycle by entry into a quiescent digression from the G1 phase. A common, sometimes permanent, state for differentiated cells. // A state in which the cell has ceased to grow and divide and has withdrawn from the cell cycle. Also called resting state. (Chapter 9) // A state in which the cell has ceased to grow and divide and has withdrawn from the cell cycle. Also called G 0. (Chapter 6) // The nondividing state of a cell.
gamete
(gam′ēt) A sex cell with the haploid number of chromosomes. // A male or female reproductive cell. // A mature male or female reproductive cell (sperm or egg). // Reproductive cells with a haploid gene content; sperm or egg cells.
genetic code
The mRNA codons and the amino acids they encode. // The set of triplet code words in DNA (or mRNA) coding for the amino acids of proteins. // The set of 64 nucleotide triplets that specify the 20 amino acids and polypeptide chain initiation and termination. // The set of rules specifying the correspondence between nucleotide triplets (codons) in DNA or RNA and amino acids in proteins.