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AP Psychology > Unit 8 Pt 2: Thinking And Language > Flashcards

Unit 8 Pt 2: Thinking And Language Flashcards

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1
Q

Convergent thinking

A

Type of thinking that is directed towards a single solution

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2
Q

Convergent thinking example

A

2+4

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3
Q

Divergent thinking

A

Type of thinking where there are many alternatives, ideas or solutions

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4
Q

Divergent thinking example

A

How humans reduce climate change?

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5
Q

Matacognition

A

Thinking about thinking

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6
Q

Metacognition example

A

Choosing between preexisting strategies to make decisions

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7
Q

Cognition

A

Mental activities associated with processing, interpreting, understanding, and communicating information

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8
Q

Cognitive psychology studies

A

Concept formation
Problem solving
Decision making
Judgement formation

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9
Q

For classification/efficiency purposes humans create

A

Concepts

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10
Q

Concepts

A

Mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

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11
Q

Concepts are often organized into

A

Hierarchies

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12
Q

Types of concepts

A

Superordinate concept
Basic concepts
Subordinate concepts

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13
Q

Superordinate concept is

A

Most broad

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14
Q

Superordinate concept example

A

Food (broad)

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15
Q

Basic concepts is

A

Specific in between

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16
Q

Basic concepts example

A

Bread (specific in between)

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17
Q

Subordinate concepts is

A

The most specific

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18
Q

Subordinate concepts

A

Rye (type of grain- most specific)

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19
Q

Humans usually form concepts by creating a

A

Prototype

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20
Q

Prototype

A

Mental image or best example fo a category

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21
Q

A prototype allows us to incorporate items

A

Easily

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22
Q

An item’s failure to match prototype leads to

A

Trouble classifying it

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23
Q

An item’s failure to match prototype leads to trouble classifying it; like

A

Is a platypus a mammal or not?

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24
Q

Methods of problem solving: trial and error

A

Guess and check

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25
Q

Methods of problem solving: algorithm

A

Methodical, logical pattern or procedure that guarantees solving of a particular problem

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26
Q

Algorithm looks at all possible combination or

A

Has a SPECIFIC FORMULA to solve the problem

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27
Q

Maths falls into what Method of problem solving?

A

Algorithm

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28
Q

Methods of problem solving: heuristics in simple words

A

Mental shortcut

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29
Q

Methods of problem solving: heuristics

A

Mental shortcut, rule of thumb strategies which allow us to solve problems efficiently and quickly

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30
Q

What problem solving strategies are most frequently used?

A

Heuristics

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31
Q

Heuristics example

A

What shortcuts do I use when deciding what shirt to buy?

Gender, size, prize, etc.

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32
Q

Disadvantage of algorithm

A

Usually slower

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33
Q

Advantage of heuristics

A

Faster

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34
Q

Algorithm vs heuristics: unscramble

SPLOYOCHYG

A

Algorithms go through all 907,208 combinations

Heuristics would take out YY, etc

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35
Q

Methods of problem solving: insight

A

Sudden realization of how to solve a problem without a real strategy involved

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36
Q

Insight: light bulb goes off

A

When you get an idea

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37
Q

Insight example

A

The riddles we did in class (didn’t get it at first but then did)

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38
Q

Kohler’s Chimpanzee study illustrates

A

Insight

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39
Q

Obstacles to Problem solving: Confirmation bias

A

Human tendency to search for information that confirms your perceptions and ignores information that goes against your initial beliefs.

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40
Q

Obstacles to Problem solving: Fixation

A

Refers to the INABILITY to see a problem from a NEW PERSPECTIVE

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41
Q

Fixation example

A

How would you arrange the match sticks into lateral triangles?

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42
Q

Mental set

A

Tendency to approach a particular problem in a particular way

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43
Q

Mental set can lead to

A

Fixation

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44
Q

Metal set is impacted by

A

Previous experiment on how we perceive and approach problems

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45
Q

Mental set method

A

You usually use strategies that have been successful in the past at solving problems even though it may not be most efficient strategy for the new problem

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46
Q

Functional fixedness

A

Tendency to think of objects only in terms of their usual functions

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47
Q

Functional fixedness can be overcomed with

A

Divergent thinking

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48
Q

Functional fixedness example

A

Matchbox, bulletin board candle

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49
Q

Inability to see that a dime can be used as a tool like a screwdriver

A

Functional fixedness

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50
Q

Representative heuristic

A

MENTAL SHORTCUT for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seen to match our prototypes

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51
Q

Representative heuristic may lead to

A

Us making incorrect assumptions

52
Q

Representative heuristic example

A

New student, Kim might be assumed as a girl because of her name

53
Q

Availability heuristic

A

MENTAL SHORTCUT where we judge the likelihood of an event based on how readily the event comes to mind

54
Q

What type of things can effect the availability of things in our memory?

A

Media, people

55
Q

Availability heuristic: how readily the event comes to mind

A

What pops into my head first?

56
Q

Availability heuristic

A

Americans finding Middle East and Africa to be dangerous

57
Q

Availability heuristic can lead us to irrationally

A

Fear things which are likely

58
Q

People are tend to be more fearful of the dangers of airplane travel than of traveling in an automobile

A

Availability heuristic

59
Q

People are tend to be more fearful of being raped by a stranger even though it is more likely they will be raped by someone they know

A

Availability heuristic

60
Q

Barnum effect: Common psychological phenomenon whereby individuals give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically to them that are in fact

A

Vague and general enough to a wide range of people

61
Q

Barnum effect helps explain

A

People’s trust of: horoscopes, fortune telling, etc

62
Q

Barnum effect example

A

Personality test and results to be very general but people believed it

63
Q

Problem solving reasoning types

A

Deductive and inductive reasoning

64
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

Process of logic where a conclusion is reached based on previously known premises

65
Q

Socrates is a man
All men are mortal
Socrates is mortal

A

Deductive reasoning

66
Q

Deductive reasoning logic

A

Logic goes from general to specific

67
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

Type of logic where we make inferences based on evidence we have seen

68
Q

Reasoning that is heuristic Iike

A

Inductive reasoning

69
Q

Strong induction is more prone to

A

Error

70
Q

Strong induction example

A

All observed crows are black.
Therefore
All crows are black

71
Q

Weak induction example

A

I always hang pictures on nails
Therefore
All pictures hang from nails

72
Q

Inductive reasoning logic

A

Logic goes from specific instances to make generalizations

73
Q

Belief bias

A

The way pre-existing beliefs an distort logical reasoning; can make invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid

74
Q

Decisions impacted by context

A

Belief bias

75
Q

Belief bias example

A

Democrats support free speech
Dictators are not democrats
Conclusion: dictators do Not support free speech

76
Q

Framing

A

Way an issue is posed; how a question is worded

77
Q

Framing example

A

Way to market ground beef: 25% fat OR 75% lean

78
Q

Framing impact

A

Can impact our memory of events.. Loftus’s eyewitness experiments

79
Q

Belief perseverance

A

Once we have decided that we believe something, we will tend to keep on believing it, even in the face of discomforting evidence

80
Q

Belief perseverance

A

Ma’s stupid superstition

81
Q

Language

A

Our spoken written, or gestured words and how they are combined to communicate

82
Q

Smallest distinctive sound unit

A

Phonemes

83
Q

Smallest unit that carries MEANING; may be a word or part of a word (like prefix)

A

Morphemes

84
Q

How many morphemes is in the word “previewed”?

A

3

85
Q

How many morphemes is in the word “blessings?”

A

3

86
Q

A system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

A

Grammar

87
Q

Grammar includes

A

Semantics and syntax

88
Q

Semantics

A

The study of meaning; rules for how we get MEANING from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language

89
Q

Way to remember semantics

A

Semantic encoding- meaning

90
Q

Semantics determine

A

The deep structure of language

91
Q

Syntax

A

The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language.

92
Q

Rule for the order to put words in

A

Syntax

93
Q

Semantic examples

A

Adding -ed to the end of a word does what?

Adding -s to a noun does what?

94
Q

Syntax examples

A

In English adjectives come before noun but the opposite is true in Spanish.

Pretty girl—> chica Bonita

95
Q

Language summary: month 4

A

Babbles may speech sounds

96
Q

Language summary: month 10

A

Babbling releases household language

97
Q

Language summary: month 12

A

One word stage

98
Q

Language summary: month 24

A

2 word, telegraphic speech

99
Q

Language summary: month 24+

A

Language developed rapidly into complete sentences

100
Q

Skinner’s theory of language

A

Behavioral

101
Q

Chomsky’s theory of language

A

Biological

102
Q

Skinner believes we learn language through

A

Radical behaviorism

103
Q

Only tools for leaning language according to Skinner

A

Association
Imitation
Reinforcement

104
Q

Association

A

Associate the sight of things with certain sounds of words

105
Q

Imitation

A

Watch models speaking words and syntax and then we imitate them

106
Q

Reinforcement

A

Given positive feedback and words of encouragement when spoken correctly

107
Q

Chomsky believes our brains are

A

Hardwired with inborn universal grammar

108
Q

According to Chomsky’s language is enabled by a

A

Language acquisition device

109
Q

Language acquisition device

A

Humans are born with innate abilities to acquire language

110
Q

Language acquisition device argued that

A

Although children do learn the language of their environment, the rate they acquire words and grammar without being taught is too astonishing to be explains purely from external learning principle

111
Q

Support for Chomsky: children learn language too fast to

A

be fully explained just by the environment

112
Q

Support for Chomsky: language is

A

Creative (we can create sentences we never heard from the environment)

113
Q

Support for Chomsky: easier to learn language as a

A

Child than adult

114
Q

Chomsky: children overgeneralize

A

(Overregulate) rules of language because of innate language acquisition device

115
Q

Children overgeneralizing example

A

Say I “goed” instead of went

The video of kids learning non sense words

116
Q

Surface structure

A

Part of language that is purely phonetic (based on sound.. what we hear or read)

117
Q

Deep structure

A

Theoretical part of language that represents the underlying MEANING which accounts for how different surface structures can have same deep structure

118
Q

Deep structure and surface structure example:

Tom ate cake vs cake was eaten by Tom

A

Both parts are each surface structures

Has one deep structure meaning

119
Q

Experience modifies brain to learn

A

Native language

120
Q

Language Relativity or Language Determinism

A

Benjamin Whorf’s idea that language determines the way we think

121
Q

Language determinism/ relativity example

A

Hopi Indians had no past tense, it made it difficult to think about past events in their cultures.
No “ed”

122
Q

All expectancy/set concepts are related to how our

A

Perception, prior experiences, and schemas for phenomenon affect our thinking patterns and problem solving abilities

123
Q

When explaining set concepts, they have to

A

Identify source of our preconception

124
Q

2 types of set/expectancy

A

1) perceptual set

2) mental set

125
Q

Stereotyping, availability heuristic, representative heuristic, functional fixedness, conformation bias, hindsight bias, belief bias, framing, learned helplessness

A

Concepts that fall under category of mental set

126
Q

Words in grammatically correct sentences

A

Syntax

AP Psychology (33 decks)

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