Biology (Biodiversity) Flashcards
species is?
fundamental unit of classification- orgainsm wih similair anotomy, appearance, genetics
habitat is?
place where a species lives
biodiversity is?
includes all plan, animal, fungi, micro-organsims. gentics and the ecosytems they belong to
biodiversity is at 3 levels:?
1) Habitat- idivuals in same species ahve a range of ahbitats
2) Dfferences between species- strucutal/functional differences
3) Genetic variation - in all species
Global biodiversity isn’t accurate as?
Estimates but
1) Not all species have been found yet
2) Evoltion/speciation still happening
3) Endangered/beocmuing extinct
Sampling plants: why?
to trya ndidentify speices, count numbe rof indiviuals in each is too impratical, habitat too large>have to make estiamte
Stratifeid sampling?
if measuring changes to vegetation from dry land to wet, marshland
set up a line transect, peice of string from dry to wet land.
place quadrats at intervals
Random Sampling?
place quadrats at random in a habitat
empty frame, or divided into equal divisions
have to use a random number geneator fro co-ordinates otherwise even if yu close your eyes, force with which you throw it will affect where it lands
First you need to identify species in the quadrat, then?
estimate the % abundance of each one
1) ACFOR scale- give eac quadrat a score bsed on the estimated % abundace of each species (not exactly quanatative)-
Random quadrats
2)Random quadrats- empty or seperated into dividions (doesn’t really matter-
Observe each quadrat amd estiamte what % cover each species has-
if some bare ground- then amy eb less 100%
if some palnts overlaping each other may be more than 100%
Point-frames?
frame with long neeles poitning downwards
lower it into a quadrat
10 needles and its used 10 times there will be 100 readings
So each plant touching the needle will have a 1% cover
bare gorund -less than 100%/overlapping plants- mroe than 100%
Species frequency is?
average number of species/chance of it occuring
Estimate number of a a particualr species in each quadrat.add them together
total number of a particluar species (in all quadrats) / total number of quadrats x 100
Species density is?
adding total number of species in each quadrat/ area of all quadrat (usually 1 square meter x no. of quadrats)
how many samples should you take?
If you’re comparing 2 habitats?
large ebough number to be sufficen enough to accurately estimate the % abundance especially in a large habitat- varies
If you;re comparing 2 habitats the number of samples has to be the same
if you’re estiamting species fequency in small grasland?
if you’re estimating in a large grasland?
estimate % cover (add up in each quadrat)
better to count number per unit area (species density)
Sampling animals- sweepnetting?
cast a alrge net in a wide arc in a ahbaitat
drop the insects caught onto a white piece of paper and count them
pooler can be used to stop them flying away
Aniamls: Catching trees?
shake a branch>dislogde aniamls>white pece of paper (have to be careful of them flying away)
ptifall traps?
hoel in soil- disguised by leaves>cotnianer inside>aniamls fall in (hoeny to entice them)>water at bottom to stop them crawlign out
If rainy- hoel should be protected to stop filling up
Tullagnen funnel?
funnel with a leaf litter at top so animals fall in
light in tunnel drives them down.jar at the botto where they’re collected
Light trap?
catch flyign insects at nigh>jar ahs ultravioet light that attratcs them.bottom of jar has alcohol>they get stuck in
mark, release and capture?
sample is taken>indiviusal caught are marked and counted>relseased back into same habitat>over time>another sample taken>number of marked individuals is counted and the number of unmarked individuals too
used to calculate totla poplation e.g. if 1/10 in 2nd sample ws marked this woud suggest you caught 1/10 of the origianl population in 1st sample
measurign density in animals?
large aniamls- count them
small aniamls- use trapping methods- don’t know total amount
do mark, relase and capture
(C1 x C2)/C3 - C1- marked in 1st sample/C2 is total numbe cpaured in 2nd sample/C3 is marked in 2nd sample
What is species richness?
numbe rof species in a habitat
What is species eveness?
% abundance - numebr of iniduvuals in each species
if a habitat is more even 9evwen numbers of % abundance)- its more biodiverse
Simsipons diversity idnex?
1- (n-N)2
high simspons value means?
very biodiverse
a lot of differnent species and number of indivuals in it
if theres a change that affects one species it won’t affect the whoel ecoystem as the proportion of that oen species t the rest is very low
low simpsons value means?
not very biodiverse
few species- thereofre is there is a change that affects oen species like a new predator or a disease it could being downt he whole ecosystem
classificiation is?
sorting of living organisms into groups
natural classification is?
closely realted they are (evoltutonary realtionships)
Taonomy is?
studies differnces between groups to classify them
Taxonomical classfiications?
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
As yuo go up the taxonomical classfiication system, it gets less?
simialr/closely related
Species ius the funadamnetal unit (irgnaisms with simialr charcetristics) >
one or more species in a genus, a few genus’ in a family, numer of famiolies in a order increases as yo go up group>less similair
Who came up with taxonomy and what was his opriginal classficiation?
linnaeus- had 5 groups - kinddom, class, order, family, genus, species
he based his on
observable appearances
Now taxonomy is based on
phyloegny- stuy of evolutionary realationships to determine how closely related species are
e.g. further the comon ancesotry is found, the closer related species are
5 kingdo classification- Prokaytoes?
Prokaryote- bacteria
circualr DNA/ no organelles/smaller ribosomes/no nuclues
Protocists?
Protocista
diverse- mostly sing-clled/some multicellular
some autrophibic/ some heterphobic- injest food/ mostly free-living
eukaryortes
Fungi?
Fungi
bodies- mycelium
cellw alls amde of chitlin
free-living/ saprophtic
Plants?
Plantae
eukarotes/multicelluar/autriohibic- photosynthesis/cellulsoe cell walls
Animals?
Animelia
eujkarotes/multicelluar/heterophibic/ produce gametes
Binomial classification is?
using genus name + sepcies name
latin is used as universal- no confusiom
dichotenous key is?
used to identify organsims]
series of yes/no quesitons that lead to species name e.g. are the buds paired? are the leaves spiky?
good one will have one less question than species
Early classifciation systems?
based on appearances
problem- things like fungi had features from both plants and animals- didn’t fit in
over time thigns like electorn microscope showed?
strucutuakl differnces- detailed organelles, 3D tissue arrangement
Prokaryotes thiough can look similair under a microscope but?
differnet strcutueres/metabolic apthways
3-doamin classficiation system….
Use cytochroime C as evidance for organisms?
used in respiration so all respring organism use it
proteins are built from amino acid chains
simialir the chain the more closely related
use DNA as evidance for simialrity of organism?
All living thigns use RNA or DNA
DNA codes for asame protein (same gentic code)
comapre DNA sequenunces- more similair the more closely related
3-domain system argues?
bacteria are fundamentally idffenet to archea and eukartoes bacteria are different as: - diferent flagella strcutures- different enzymes for buidlign RNA different DNA replicaton mechanisms Eukarotes and archea: simialri proteisn in DNA simialr DNA replication mechanims simailri enzymes, RNA plymerase to build RNA
He argues these fundamental differences between bacteria asnd archea/eukarotes are so important as?
RNA and DNA are part of a basic mechanism that transforms genes into visible charcteristics
Varaition- difference between roagisms occurs?
between species and within species
Continous variation is + examples?
2 extremes, with a range of intermediate values in-between
most occur at a mean value, not at extremes
e..g height of humans length of leaves on a tree
Disconinous variation + examples?
2 categories with no intermediate values
may be distorbuted evenly or not
e..g male or female, bater ia with flaggellum or not
causes of variaiton:genetic?
thousand of genes- allelues- different versoins of these genes
none of us will have identical allelues, except an identical twin
male and female gamets fuse- infinete amount of combinations
allalues can mutateo over time, occasionally
Environemtal causes of gentic variation?
lighter/darker skin due to exposure to sunlight
malnourished- shorter, skinnier
Howver, height can be both?
past cnetury- peope who have better diets grow taller
but eenif you eat well ,your height will be limited by gentics from family
Disocuntois vairiation can only ahve gentic effect?
have genes or you don’t- no intermediate values so only a gentic cause
Darwin’s observations about evoltuion?
1) All offsprng are simialir to parents
2) no inividuals are the same
3) orgaism can produce a lot of offspring
4) number of poplualtions stay farly stable
What did Darawin draw from his observations?
1) Orgainsm compete for food, shleter, water
2) Some orgainskm have charatceristics that make them better suited to envirnoment
3) Over time changes can rise to a new species
Natural seection uses ?
selection pressure- betetr suited are ‘selected’ and pass on to successful allelues to offspring. Not sleected don’t
Specialtionn is?
a new species formed from another one
How logn does epciation take?
gnerations but in micro-organism can be shorter
what has o happen for speciation to take place?
reproductibe barrier that stops indivuals in the species reproducing
What is a geographical barrier?
if indiviuals are seprated by an island they are unliely to be able to efficently reproduce /interbreed so speciation likely to occur
allopatric seperation
Changes to biochemical/physical/behavioril?
biochemical- chaneg that prevents fertilisation- prevent interbredding
behavoril- changes to courtship activities
physical- failure of sexual organs
sympatic speration
Eviandace for evoltion- fossils?
incomplete problem?
Fossils- preserved remains of roagisms that died a long time ago.
simple organsims>comlex organims (selction pressure from NS)
Problem: Incomplete- some we haven’t found, some destroyed by rock movement
onyl denser, harder parts become fossilsed
fossil record- show chacterstics- how species has changed over time (observing fossils in rocks)>used to determine relative age
DNA evidance for evoltuon?
DNA code is the same in all iving organsims
Compre DNA sequences - ones that are ore similair- sepcies are more closely related- onyl divided into seprate species recently
Different sequneces- less closely related- divided longer time ago
Vital proteins )(molecualr evidance)
DNA/RNA polymerase?
Vital prteins like DNA/RNA polymerase enzymes are used in all organsims
- for replication
centre part- simialir across all living groups
hgher orgainisms, like humans, have added subunits but basic function of enzyme is till same-jsut speeds up activity
Evoltuion steps
1) Genetic variation in all species- different allelues
2) Some orgaisnims ahve allelues (genetic advantgaes) that make them mor eliely to survive
3) Natural selction applies selection pressure- ones more suited to environment reproduce and pass on successful allelues to offspring
4) The offspring contian succesful allelue- survive over ones that don’t (competing for food space)
5) Over time the ones that don;t die out and a new species is formed
Environmetnal variation doesn’t?
ave any impact on evoltuion as they aren’t passed on to offspring
pests are?
insects that are designed to reduce crop yields, spead disease
Pescidies are designed to?
kill pests
What is the probelms with insecides (resistance)?
Insecticides apply a strogn selection pressure
Insects that have devloped (mutation/variation0 a resitance to inseicides over time
Those who don’t have it will die out but those that do will survie and pass on the successful/resitnat allelue to offspring>resistant strain
As inscidide is being put on?
resistnace devlops- it triggers it
Crops that have resitant isnects are harder..?
for farmers to contorl- as they have to work out which are reistant- whole crop could die in that time
if a broad insecide is used (that kill a range of isnects)?
kill beneifical insects
If more of an insect that holds the resitant gene survives after insecide spary?
spread of disease would increase, killing more people that eat the crops
Some bacteria also..?
have develped resitaance, due to genetic variation)
If its exposed to antibiotics then the ones that carry the reistant allelue will survive, and pasing it onto offspring through reproduction
resistat strain will be developed e.g MRSA
Imapcts of resitant bacteria on human health?
Takes doctors longer to figure out which antibiotics will work
-during this time condition will deteroiate
if none antibiotics work?
disease couldn’t be treated
So new ones have to continaully be developed
economic/ecological reaosns for conserving plant/animal species?
- ecnomic- use resoucrs to make prodcuts e.g. wood for timber and possible sources of new medicines, jobs
ecological- important in maintinaing C02 levels in atmsophere- photosynthesus, in insects pollinating crops- make ecosystem stable/not disturb it
ethical/aesthic reaosn for conservation?
- all living things have a right to life
- stewardship
Global climate change affecting consequences for animals and plants?
- increase temeraure, plant move towards poles
- some animals can’t move to another habitat that suits their needs i.e. polar bears
Affects of global climate change on agriculture/plants and animals?
precipiation?
salsination?
- higher C02 levels- afects rate of photsynthesis
-means increased growth rate.longer growing seasons>more evaporaton of water
-This means more precipiation so more floods/sea level rise which destorys land that plants and animals live on
increased salination of plants due to seawater>osomosis>playmosilsed cells>die
affect for increase in pests/diseases?
crops moving to poles- experiance new diseases/pests
longer growing seaosns>longer summer>pests have mroe time to multiply>more chance of more surivving winter
increased spread of diseases>crops for eating are infected for animals and humans
spread of infection through animals>meat isn’t safe for consumtion
mosquito>ore troical regions>spread of malairia increased
What are the beneifts for conserving anumlas and plants?
selective breeding- plants (crops) and animals (eating)?
reatin biodiversity of animals/plants
more species and higher % abundance of each
selective breeding- more differnet species >increased chance of fidnign desirabel chacteristics to combat consequences of global climate change
find- allalue for resitance, hgih criop yield, able to surive in saline condtions and interbreed them so they are safe for eating
animls -interbreed high milk pridciton, large size so meet demands for such a huge popualtion that predominately eats meat, need milk- Ca2+ ions forbone density
example for importance of maintinaing diversity e.g. irish potatoe famine?
disease affected all potaotes (blight)
all gentically similair due to interbreeding
all crops were killed- low resitnace
if there was diversity- selctive breeding
in-situ conservation is?
breed the animals in their natural habitat e.. g wildlife corridors
install comunication networrks
It ams to reduce?
human activity
strict laws about hunting/poaching
problem- difficult to persuade countutries to stop hunting, espeically if they depend on income/tourism (governemtns don’t agree)
What does in-situ have to consider [3 principles]
1) comprehensivness- how many species are ther
2) adequecy- is the area large enough to accomoate for all populations
3) re[perestivies- full range of diversity, % abundance for each species
what are the reasons pandas have become endangered?
10 habitat destruction- forced into smaller areas/ bamboo forets destoryed-food shrotgaes
2) Roads isolate panda populations (geographical barriers)>prevents interbredding
3) Hunting- evenif poaching is banend, hunters still kill pandas accidently
Advantages of in-situ conservation?
- increases biodiversity- no disruption of ecosytems (depdnable of food chains)
-retians ecological integrity- allows them to be free
-public awreness/education programmes- LEDC’s
-scientific research- new medicines
sustainable land use- heritgae actviites>economic benefits of touism
disadvantages of in-situ conservation?
conflict with local people- displacing them from land
people continuning to hunt them if allowed to stay in corridors
illegal exploitation of land use like timber
Ex-situ conservation is?
take animals out of their natural habitat and out them in captivity i.e. zoos and safaris
Advantagesof ex-situ?
- safegaurd them agaisnt natural diasters e.g. fire, floods
- easier to do scientiifc research- new drugs/medicines but eaiser to track breeding patterns
-e.g. myth of pandas being notroisuly bad breeders- in zoos they have sucessfully carried out artifical insemination to interbreed - this increases biodiversity- selective bredding
education/public awareness
Disadvantages of ex-situ?
-doesn’t reatin ecological integrity- held in captivity
-reduced space, resources in zoos>small populations>hgih species richnes but low % abundance of each
If animal doesn’t breed successfully- means can’t interbreed- genetically similair>suspectible to same disease e.g. Tasmainian Devils (same parent gene pool- susepctible to environemnt change)
At habitat level it is?
very diverse- different environments
Limtied gentic variation e.g. Tasmainian Devils?
all carry recessive allleues for same genes 9have gentic disorder)>more liely more offspring will be born with it
gentic bottleneck>hunted by humans to near extinction
samll parent gene pool- genetically simialir
>reuslt is a contgois cancer- cells are so simialiar there immune system doesn’t recognise them as different (same antigens)>prone to catch it
botanic gardens is ex-situ conservationn for?
endangered plant species- take them out of habiat and breed them to increase diversity (% abundance of diffent species)
Advantages of seed collections?
seeds domant stage= seed
- large numbers so not much sitrurbance on ecosystem
- very small so don’t occupy much space
- germinate- breed them asexually- easier
- quickly produce large numbers of indiviuals
Disadvantges of seed colelcitons?
- sample might not be repsentitive of gentic diversity
- taking same speices formm diferent area- migh not succeed in new area
- asexually- reduces diversity- all gentically indentical
- still cuase some disturbance to ecosystem
Seed banks are?
biggest one is?
colelction of seed samples
Millenium Kew Gardens
By 2010 millenium key hoped?
10% of all dryland plant species- msot threatened/rarest
Not jsut stored- wide range of befiots to humantiy?
- food/buildig materials to rural communtiies
- gm crops- resitant to disease
- habitat for repopulations
Strogae of seed- they don’t …… so dry and…… conditions?
dessicate so dry and freezing conditons
Remain viable for……?
decades/hundreds of years
to prolong viabiltiy ?
level of moisture
decrease of 1% i moisuter and 5 degree reduciton in temeperature> double life span
however they might….. so scientists have to?
detoriate
check they can germinate at regualr itnervals
how do scieitnists cary out gwermiantion?
1) take the sample
2) plant seed in nurtient agar on Petri dish
3) measure gemrination- % that do, success rate
4) enable sthem to fidn best condtions- lead to discery about most effetive storage
What is CITES?
how amny countreis belong to it?
how amny singed it?
convention on international trade
- stop wild popuations of plant and animal species from becoming extinctdue to trading
-not used for commercial pripsoes
194 counties belong toit /157 singed it
What sit he promblem with CITES?
Can do what they like?
economic beneifts?
19 haven’t signed it
some animals are economically viable to counties/ make up a large % of thei economy
e.g. sharkfin soup (asian counties)
permiots/exceptions for scientific research- can get away with it by small justifications
What is the Rio COnsrvation on Biodiversity?
how many counties
main aims?
conserve natural habitat- ensure biodiversity of of plants/aniamls
150
What do counties have to do due to it?
- in-sit and ex-situ conservation programmese.g. botianc gardens/wildlife parks
share breedign expertise and technology
have to use resources sustainably
What are EIA’s?
environmentally impact assesent
What are EIA’s important internationally?
- advoid adverse effect to envoroment/ know potential consequnces/alert partner countires of possible effects
Mainly used?
take into account [3 things]
locally-
size od devlpment/ enviromental sensitivity/type of impacts possible
Procedure of EIA’s?
1) carry put assesment- possible effect son biodiversity
2) Publisiie it
3) Authority makes a decision
What do EIA’s do for local authority?
aware of any significant effects/public is fully aware
What do EIA’s for developer?
means thir fully aware of poetnial consequnces from buiding project/modifications to design/mroe sutainabel solution
Adaptation is a feature that enchances survival and?
long-term reproductive success
Behaviroul adaptation is?
organism changes its behavior to better surive the condtions its in- e.g. in xerophytes they close their stomam at night, or trap a layer of moisture (fold themselves) to reduce the water vapouir otential gradient
Physical/Biochemical adaptations?
ensures correct functioning of ell processes
stung/spikes- release poisionus toxins
grassland plants- after a fire- root portions survive to sprout again
Structural (anatomical) adaptations?
any sturucure permant in plant that enchances survival- e.g. extensive root systems in xerophytes to absorb moisure from gorund, or narrow leaves that lose less water than broad leaves
