Intro to Pathology Flashcards by Jasmine Sappor

Causes of disease

Congenital

Acquired

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Congenital diseases

Present at birth

Can be genetic e.g. cystic fibrosis or non-genetic e.g thalidomide anomalies

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Acquired diseases

Result of environmental factors

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What do most diseases arise from

A combo of causes

Multifactorial aetiology

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VITAMIN CDEF

Surgical sieve - thought process for a differential diagnosis

Vascular 
Infl/ infectious 
Trauma 
Automimmune 
Metabolic
Iatrogenic/ idiopathic 
Neoplastic 
Congenital 
Drugs/ degenerative diseases 
Endocrine disorders 
Functional

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Iatrogenic

Relating to illness caused by medical examination or treatment e.g. vomiting and hair loss w/ chemo

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Idiopathic

Cause of disease is not known e.g. idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

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Pathogenesis

Mechanism by which disease is caused

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Morphology

Form and structural changes

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Neoplasm

Abnormal cell growth, can be benign or malignant (cancers)

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What does the ectoderm develop into

Skin 
Neural tissue 
Adrenal medulla
Pituitary gland 
Eyes 
Ears

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What does the mesoderm develop into

Muscle 
Bone and cartilage 
Heart and blood vessels 
Urogenital system 
Bone marrow and lymphatic tissue 
Adrenal cortex

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What does the endoderm develop into

Lining of GI and respiratory tracts 
GI organs (liver, pancreas)
Bladder, vagina, urethra 
Larynx, trachea, lungs 
Thyroid and parathyroid glands 
Thymus

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Function of epithelium

Protection (skin)
Absorptions (GI tract)
Surface transport (airways)
Secretion (glands)
Excretion (kidney)
Gas exchange (alveoli)

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What do osteoblasts produce

Osteoid - main component of bone

Predominantly made of collagen

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Homeostasis

The process by which internal variables are kept within a normal range of values which allows us to maintain a physiological state which is compatible w/ life

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-ve feedback

Focuses on bringing back variable change to normal level, preventing an excessive response

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+ve feedback

A variable change causes adjustment in the same direction as the initiating event e.g. bleeding, intensifying the response to stimulus until an endpoint is reached – less commonly used

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+ve feedback in bleeding

Break/ tear occurs in blood vessel wall 
\+ve feedback cycle initiated 
Platelets adhere to site and release chemicals - stimulating the release of more clotting factors 
Platelet plug is formed 
Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed

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What does a normal cell require to be viable

Protection from environment 
Adequate nutrition 
Communication 
Energy generation 
Movement 
Molecular catabolism 
Renewal of senescent molecules

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Why does a normal cell require communication

Extracellular signals determine whether a cell will live or die, whether it remains quiescent or whether it is stimulated to perform a spp function

Catabolism

Breaking doen molecules

Senescent

No longer viable

Peroxisomes

Able to convert long fatty acids to medium sized ones - also generates H2O2 but peroxisome contains peroxidase

Peroxidase

Converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen

How does material arrive at lysosomes

Via 1 of 3 pathways: Endosome Phagosome Proteosome

Endosome

Transports substances in and out of cells

Proteosomes

Organelles which digest unneeded or damaged proteins, releasing peptides after they have been identified by attachment of ubiquitin

What cannot diffuse through the lipid bilayer

Polar molecules >75 Daltons in mass | Ions

Examples of molecules that can passively diffuse through phospholipid bilayer

``` Oxygen Carbon dioxide Urea Alcohol Steroids ```

Methods of transporting substances in and out of cells

``` Carrier or channel proteins Endocytosis Exocytois Phagocytosis Transcytosis ```

Types of endocytosis

Caveolae- mediated endocytosis | Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Caveolae mediated endocytosis

Involved in regulation transmembrane signalling and cell adhesion by moving receptors Moves integrins and is responsible for vitamin uptake

Integrins

Molecules which join cells to the surrounding stroma).

Receptor mediated endocytosis

Vesicles form around bigger molecules These fuse w/ lysosomes, releasing contents Receptors are then recycled back to the plasma membrane

Transcytosis

Movement of endocytosed vesicles between apical and basolateral components of the cell – how antibodies pass from breast milk through intestinal cells

Main methods of cell communication

Synaptic transmission Autocrine Paracrine Endocrine

Synaptic transmission

Occurs at the neuromuscular junction, where acetylcholine travels from a nerve across the synaptic space to the acetylcholine receptor on the muscle cell

Autocrine signalling

When the cell stimulates itself and this occurs during cell development or to amplify a response, tumours can survive by producing growth factors which act via an autocrine mechanism

Paracrine signalling

Targets cells in immediate vicinity Involved in generation of new blood vessels e.g. angiogenesis Also involved in cell motility and tumour metastasis

Which signals do cells respond to

``` Pathogens Damage to neighbouring cells Contact w/ neighbouring cells Contact w/ extracellular matrix Secreted molecules e.g. growth factors, cytokines and hormones ```

Receptor mediated signalling

Receptors can be in cell (transcription factors) or on cell surface (transmembrane proteins w/ extracellular domains which bind soluble secreted ligands) Activated by lipid-soluble ligands e.g Vit D and steroid hormones

What happens after a ligand binds to a cell surface receptor

Ion channel opens - usually at neuromuscular junction A G-prptein is activated Tyrosine kinase activation Latent tran scripting factor activated

Growth factors

Stimulate activity of proteins which are needed for cell survival, growth and division Promote entry of cells into the cell cycle Relive blocks on cell cycle progression Prevent apoptosis Enhance synthesis of cell components

Function of ecm

Support cell anchorage, polarity and migration Control cell proliferation via growth factors and integrin signalling Provides a scaffold for tissue renewal Creates tissue microenvironments

Important properties of stem cells

Capacity for self-renewal | Asymetric division

Asymmetric cell division

One daughter cell matures, and the other remains a stem cell

Symmetric cell division

Two daughter cells | Occurs in embryonic stem cells and under conditions of stress

Totipotent

Can give rise to all types of differentiated tissues e.g. embryonic stem cells

Adult stem cells

Tissue stem cell Can only replace cells in the tissue in which they reside Reside in stem cell niches in many organs

Multipotent stem cells

Found in bone marrow and fat | Give rise to chondrocytes, osteocytes, adipocytes and myocytes

Stem cell niches

Around bone marrow vessels In the bulge region of the hair follicle In the limbus of the cornea In gut crypts In the canals of Hering of intrahepatic bile ductules in the liver In the subventricular zone of the brain